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RIVERSIDE TEXTBOOKS 
IN EDUCATION 

EDITED BY ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION 
LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY 



DIVISION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 

UNDER THE EDITORIAL DIRECTION 

OF ALEXANDER INGLIS 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION 
HARVARD UNIVERSITY 




THE TEACHER OF DRAWING 



Supervisors and grade teachers sliould make drawings large enough to 
be seen from all parts of the schoolroom 



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HOW TO TEACH THE 
SPECIAL SUBJECTS 



CALVIN N.^KENDALL 

COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FOR THE 
STATE OF NEW JERSEY 



GEORGE A. MIRICK 

FORMER ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION 
FOR THE STATE OF NEW JERSEY 




HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 



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COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY CALVIN N. KENDALL AND GEORGE A. MI RICK 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



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CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS 
U. S. A. 



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EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

The companion volume in this series of textbooks, 
written by the same authors, has proven very useful 
to thousands of teachers as a guide in giving instruc- 
tion in the so-called fundamental subjects of the ele- 
mentary-school course. The teaching of arithmetic, 
geography, history, and English, though, is usually 
found easy in comparison with that of the special 
subjects, largely due to the better instruction in both 
subject-matter and methods which teachers in train- 
ing are given in these fundamentals. In many of our 
larger school systems, too, special supervisors for each 
of the special subjects are employed to direct the in- 
struction and to advise teachers as to the best practices 
and the most satisfactory methods to be employed. 
In the smaller school systems, however, and in all 
rural-school systems not organized under the county- 
unit form of school administration, such special 
supervision is almost invariably absent. In all such 
schools elementary teachers must not only teach the 
fundamental, but the special, subjects as well, without 
other help than an occasional visit from a supervisory 
officer and such books as the present number in the 
series and its companion volume can give. 

It has been with a view to affording practical assist- 
ance to teachers, so situated, in the management of 



vi EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

their morning exercises, special-day programs, the 
organization of the seat work for the smaller children, 
and in conducting the instruction in music, drawing, 
physical training, play, nature study, and agriculture 
that this volume has been prepared. The long experi- 
ence of each of the authors in guiding the work of 
teachers in our larger city school systems in itself 
insures a useful and a practical volume, and an exam- 
ination of the manuscript is convincing that such a 
volume has been prepared. 

Ellwood p. Cubberley 



PREFACE 

Drawing, Music, Physical Education, Nature 
Study, and Elementary Agriculture are special sub- 
jects, not in the sense that they are non-essential to 
education in a democracy. They are no less essen- 
tial than are those subjects often called fundamental, 
treated in a companion volume, "How to Teach the 
Fundamental Subjects." These subjects are not 
luxuries for the few. They are vital parts of a sound 
and liberal education for all. They will more and 
more find their place in schools, where they are not 
found now, as the nature of children and the needs of 
society become better understood and more generally 
accepted by school boards as their proper guides in 
determining school policies. 

But these subjects make new demands upon teach- 
ers, and school administrators are sometimes reluc- 
tant to introduce them, not because they do not rec- 
ognize their importance but because they fear that 
teachers are not adequately prepared to teach them. 
Moreover in some schools where they have been in- 
troduced the results appear to be inadequate because 
they are not taught well. The teachers do not under- 
stand the subjects nor how to present them. 

It is evident that teachers need help in introducing 



viii PREFACE " 

these subjects into their school program and in main- 
taining them there on an educational basis. Those in 
training need this help and those in service need it, 
particularly those who cannot have the inspiration 
and guidance of a living supervisor. 

To give this help this book has been prepared. It 
does not attempt to establish a theory as to why these 
subjects should be taught in school. Its purpose is to 
show how they should be taught. Each subject has 
been treated from the viewpoint of schoolroom prac- 
tice. It has been the purpose of the editors to present 
an authoritative, sound, modern guide, free from 
technicalities, simple plans and suggestions that are 
the outcome of wide, varied, and intelligent experi- 
ence — plans and suggestions that have been tried 
out in many schools and have been found workable 
and productive of desired results. 

The aid of successful supervisors, who are at 
the same time educational leaders and constructive 
thinkers, has been sought in the preparation of the 
several chapters. The editors are under great obliga- 
tion to them for their contribution of material and 
for their interest in making the discussions clear and 
practical. 

To the chapters on the special subjects previously 
mentioned two chapters have been added relating to 
special phases of a teacher's work on which help is 
often needed. One of the chapters treats of Morn- 
ing Exercises, Closing of School, and Special-Day 



PREFACE ix 

Programs. This was prepared by one who has had 
notable success in her own rural schools in these ac- 
tivities. The other chapter treats of Seat Work in 
Primary Grades. Herein may be found ways of em- 
ploying the study periods of primary school children 
in tasks that are at the same time interesting and 
educating. 

For those who wish to extend their self-instruc- 
tion, directions for Collateral Reading will be found 
at the close of each chapter, and a Bibliography at 
the end of the book. No other single volume, so in- 
clusive in its special field and so practical, is avail- 
able for teachers so far as the editors know. 



CONTENTS 

Chapter I. Morning Exercises, Closing of School, 
Special-Day Programs 1 

By Marie Turner Harvey, Porter Rural School,"Kirks- 
ville, Missouri; assisted by Margaret A. Crecelius. 

Morning Exercises: Utilizing other school activities 

— Hygiene lessons — • Ethical lessons — Current events — 
Biography — ■ Study of pictures — ■ Devotional exercises. 

Closing of School: Kinds of exercise — Quality of 
exercise — ■ Purpose of exercises. 

Special-Day Programs: Qualities of — A Christmas 
program — • A patriotic program — Community inter- 
ests recognized — Community days — Mother's Day — ■ 
Thanksgiving Day — Preparing the program. 

Collateral Reading. 

Chapter II. Music 36 

By D. R. Gebhard, Professor of Music, George Pea- 
body College for Teachers, Nashville, Tennessee. 

Good music and its place in school. 

The Voice: Quality of tone — -Monotone — Seating 
plan in combination grades — The changing voices of 
children. 

Phrasing. 

Rote Singing: Grade I — Grade II — Grade III — 
Grade IV — Grade V — Grades VI-VIII. 

Reading Music: From rote to note — Song method 

— Direct method. 

Music Course: Grade I: Discovering and arranging the 
voices — Teaching meter and rhythm — • Individual sing- 
ing — ■ Grade II: Beginning the year — Use of textbook — 
Grade III: Beginning the year — ■ Rhythmic drills — ■ 
Grade IV — Grade V — Grade VI— -Grades VII and VII. 

Combination Grades: Sight reading — The one-room 
school — • A typical rural school — Music course in rural 
schools. 



xii CONTENTS 

Music Appreciation: Its place in school — How to 
cultivate it. 

Community Gatherings: Bands and orchestras — The 
first meeting — Other meetings — Songs all can sing. 
J Collateral Reading. 

Chapter III. Physical Education and Play . . 100 

By Dr. E. A. Peterson, Director of Medical Inspection 
and Physical Education, Cleveland, Ohio. 

General Survey: The modern need of physical educa- 
tion — The nature of children — ■ The modern problem — 
Time available for physical education — Using the time — 
A word on posture. 

Games and Exercises: Grades I and II — Grade III 

— Grade IV— Grade V — Grade VI — Grade VII — 
Grade VIII. 

Principles Governing Physical Education. 

Use of Recesses, 

Organization of Activities: How to organize teams — 
Chart for recording results — Scoring team and individual 
performance — • The Universal Athletic Scoring Chart — 
Requisites for success — Helps for teachers. 

Rural Schools: The teacher's opportunity — ■ Using 
the older pupils. 

Equipment. 

Maintaining Interest. 

Collateral Reading. 

Chapter IV. Seat Work in Primary Grades . . 128 

By Harriet E, Peet, Instructor in Methods of Teaching, 
State Normal School, Salem, Massachusetts; assisted by 
Elizabeth James. 

Planning Seat Work. 

Supervision. 

Measuring Results. 

Silent Reading: Grades I and II: The morning study 
period — Grades III and IV: Finding answers to reading 
problems — Finding something to tell — Planning a play 

— Guessing riddles. 

Word and Sentence Drills: Grades I and II: Match- 
ing script and print — Matching script and script — 



CONTENTS xiii 

Naming colors — Compositions — Describing pictures — • 
Grades III and IV: Dictation — Sentence puzzles — • 
Hygiene puzzles — Selecting words. 

Number Work: Grades I and II: Making toy money — 
Counting coins — Matching number cards — Use of dom- 
ino cards — Grouping units — Finding sums, products, 
differences, quotients — Reviews — ■ Grades III and IV: 
Fundamental facts — Fundamental processes — Solving 
problems —^ Carrying out a project. 

Mantjal Work: Grades I and II: Making toy furniture 
— Weaving — A toy shop — A toy menagerie — Illus- 
trating stories — Making posters — ■ Grades III and IV: 
Decorating the schoolroom — Making transparencies ^- 
Making a scrap book — Working to measure. 

Collateral Reading. 



Chapter V. Drawing and Applied Art . . 163 

By Fred H. Daniels, Director of Drawing, Newton, 
Massachusetts. 

Nature Drawing: Two aims in — The Curve Beautiful 
— The Curve Beautiful illustrated — Arrangement of ob- 
jects in a drawing — Interesting specimens should be 
drawn — Preparing to draw — The center of interest — • 
Illustrating for the class — ■ Drawing a leaf — Drawing a 
dandelion — Coloring a drawing. 

Illustrative Drawing: Mid-winter scenes simplest 
to draw — Drawing winter scenes illustrated — Use of 
crayon — Drawing figures — ■ Teaching distance and per- 
spective — Methods of teaching. 

Animal Drawing: Each animal must be taught — 
Drawing chickens — Drawing rabbits — Drawing fishes 
— Animal drawing illustrated. 

Object Drawing: Grades I-IV: Course in drawing by 
months — Kind of objects to draw — The teacher should 
frequently draw with the class — Drawing from memory — 
Grade V: Fruits and vegetables — • Perspective — Princi- 
ples in drawing groups — Drawing problems — Problems 
illustrated — Use of crayons and water-colors — Grade VI: 
New drawing principles — Principles illustrated — Neces- 
sity of practice — Selecting and grouping objects for draw- 
ing — Securing balance. 



xiv CONTENTS 

Color: Limits of study in school — Fourteen important 
considerations — Color symbolism — Determining color 
schemes — Need of practice in applying color — Stand- 
ards of appreciation. 

Lettering: Good and bad lettering — Lettering illus- 
trated — • Common faults and how to remedy them — 
Principles of good lettering — Transferring letters — ■ Lim- 
its of lettering taught in school. 

Design: Should be made for definite use — ■ Covers for 
color book, clipping booklet, geography notes, spelling 
book, arithmetic notebook, picture book, and for sofa 
cushion — ■ Designs illustrated. 

Correlations: Picture Study: The Grade Teacher 
AND THE Supervisor. 

Collateral Reading. 

Chapter VI. Nature Study and Elementary Agri- 
culture ^55 

By A. M. Hulbert, New Jersey State Leader in Boys' 
and Girls' Club Work. 

Nature Study and Agriculture Study Are Closely 
Related. 

Nature Study : Grades I-III : Trees — Flowers — 
Birds — Gathering nuts and seeds — • Insects. 

From Nature Study to Agriculture: Grades IV- 
VI : The project method of instruction. 

Agriculture: Grades VII and VIII: The garden pro- 
ject — ■ Motives in gardening — A perspective view of the 
year's work — The school garden — Selecting the garden 
site — Planning the garden — Garden equipment — Test- 
ing seeds — Seed and vegetable identification — ■ Hot-beds 
and cold-frames — ■ Preparing the seed-bed — Cultivation 
and thinning — A seed chart — Fighting plant enemies — 
Chart of pests, diseases, and sprays — Propagation and dis- 
semination — Harvest time — Records. 

Relation with Other Subjects: Reading — Compo- 
sition — Arithmetic — Other relations. 

The Teacher's Helps. 

Collateral Reading. 

Bibliography 301 

Index 307 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

The Teacher of Drawing Frontispiece v 

Musical Staff Q5 

Two-Part Measures 65 

Metrical Exercise 65 

Rhythmical Exercise 66 

Metrical Exercise 71 

Meter Illustrated 73 

Syllables and Notes 76 

The Test for Correct Standing Posture . . . 106 

Correct Sitting Posture 106 ' 

Position for the Broad Standing Jump . . .106 
Two Starting Positions for the Running Race . 107 
Correct Position for Basket-Ball Throw . . . 107 

Correct Way to Chin the Bar 107 

A Game in the Schoolroom 114 ^ 

A Dance in the Schoolroom 115 

Chart illustrating a School Athletic Leagi e . 119 

Toy Furniture 154 

Cardboard Weaving Loom 156 

Transparency 160 

The Curve Beautiful — Plate I, Figs. 1-8 . . 167 
The Curve Beautiful in Nature — Plate II, Figs. 

1-3 171 

The Curve Beautiful in Nature — Plate Tf], Figs. 

1-4 172 



xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

The Curve Beautiful in Objects and Design — 

Plate IV 173 

Arrangement Illustrated — Plate V, Figs. 1-5 . 174 
Drawing Leaves — Plate VI, Figs. 1-4 . . .181 

The Dandelion — Plate VII 184 

Illustrative Drawing — Plate VIII, Figs. 1-4 . 190 

Animal Drawing — Plate IX 197 

Object Drawing — Plate X, Figs. 1-8 .... 209 
Ellipses in Object Drawing — Plate XI, Figs. 1-5 213 
Test Problems in Object Drawing — Plate XII . 214 

Lettering — Plate XIII, Figs. 1-9 224 

Designs for Book Covers (Color Books) — Plate 

XIV 232 

Designs for Book Covers (Geography Notes) — 

Plate XV 233 

Designs for Book Covers (Arithmetic Notes) — 

Plate XVI 234 

Designs for Easter Cards — Plate XVII . . . 237 
Designs for Valentines — Plate XVIII . . .238 
Designs for Christmas Cards, etc. — Plate XIX . 241 
Designs for Sofa Cushions — Plate XX, Figs. 1-6 242 

Cultivating the Garden 276 

A Variety of Crops on the Same Plot . . . 276 
A Page FROM A Well-Kept Account Book . . .277 



HOW TO TEACH 
THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

CHAPTER I 

MORNING EXERCISES — CLOSING OF SCHOOL — 
SPECIAL-DAY PROGRAMS 

To know is not the end of life, neither is it the high- 
est goal of the school. Beyond teaching and learning 
mere knowledge lies teaching and learning right atti- 
tudes toward life and cultivating those fundamental 
virtues that determine individual and national great- 
ness and prosperity — truthfulness, sincerity, the com- 
panion of truthfulness, inclination toward the good, 
wholesome ambition to achieve, spiritual sensitive- 
ness, respect for law and order, and patriotism. 

Although the home, the church, and the community 
has each its peculiar duty for the cultivation of these 
virtues in the lives of the oncoming generation, upon 
the public schools in a democracy the responsibility 
rests heavily and they are carrying it with increasing 
insight and success. More and more the public schools 
are becoming arenas in which these virtues are applied. 
Through the study of civics, history, and hygiene 
pupils are understanding the place of these virtues in 
the Hfe of individuals and of communities, and there 



2 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

are many opportunities for spiritual uplift and inspi- 
ration that arise or that may be created during the 
school day and school year that may be made educa- 
tionally fruitful if the opportunities are wisely util- 
ized. Among these opportunities the opening and 
closing of school and the *' special days " are particu- 
larly rich in possibilities, and it is to the discussion 
of these that this chapter is devoted. 

Morning Exercises 

It is highly important that the teacher set aside one 
period a day in which to talk to the entire school upon 
whatever subjects are most vital at that time. Here 
is her opportunity to widen the children's horizon, to 
teach them, by her own example as well as by instruc- 
tion, to think independently and courageously, and to 
inspire them with what is true and beautiful. There 
is opportunity also to give them a cosmopolitan out- 
look through the variety of ideas to which she intro- 
duces them. Current events, biography, literature, 
art, music, nature, history, ethics, — all are at her 
disposal. She can make her children world citizens, 
and they will be the better fitted for local and national 
citizenship. 

The material that a teacher may draw upon for this 
intimate converse with her children is limited only by 
her own resourcefulness. Whatever is worthy in books, 
periodicals, and newspapers may find a useful place 
in the ethical as well as in the intellectual training of 



MORNING EXERCISES 3 

her children. She should also keep in mind that when 
a child thinks for himself, listens understandingly to 
others, reads by himself intelligently, and adopts right 
principles of action and high ideals, he is living suc- 
cessfully, and therefore she should use her well-selected 
material to stimulate these things. 

She can economize time, especially in a country 
school, by teaching the same things to all the children 
at one time. Suppose that preparation is being made 
for a Christmas program in which a dramatization of 
Dickens's Christmas Carol is to be given. Country 
children as a rule hear too little reading, and should 
hear good reading by the teacher. By presenting the 
story in installments as dramatically as she can, omit- 
ting unimportant parts, she can give a most excellent 
lesson in interpretative reading to all classes at once. 
By the quality of her own reading, helped by a few 
questions and remarks, she can paint the character 
of poor miserly Scrooge with such vividness that 
every child in the room will register a determination 
never to be one himself. When a sympathetic under- 
standing of the story has been developed, the children 
are ready to read it to the teacher and to dramatize it. 

Perhaps there is a book the children ought to be 
reading for themselves, but no one seems disposed to 
do so. How stimulate an interest in that book.^ Try 
reading a few interesting pages of it to the pupils some 
morning, and when you find them enjoying it, pause 
and ask a few questions like these: "How many of 



4 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

you enjoy the story? " "How many of you would like 
to read the book for yourselves?'* or "Who would 
like to take the book home to-night and keep it until 
you have read it through? " Frequently this is all 
the stimulation necessary to make that book popular 
thenceforth. 

Utilizing other school activities 

Music rightfully falls in the morning exercise. Here 
the children may feel its relation to the whole scheme 
of things. What better time to teach patriotic songs 
than in February when the children are looking for- 
ward to the patriotic exercise in which those songs 
shall appear? What better writing, spelHng, or lan- 
guage lessons can be desired than those resulting when 
the child carefully records in a notebook that is sacred 
to him all the new songs and quotations that are to 
be used in the program? The very fact that he is con- 
sciously recording these things, not only for immedi- 
ate use, but to consult in later years, is an incentive for 
him to do his best. That notebook can become an inter- 
esting bit of school history for the child, if everything 
entered is properly dated and the whole is carefully 
indexed when it is completed. 

The value of the memorized quotation cannot be 
overestimated. Besides being an excellent training 
for the memory, it introduces new ideas into the child's 
mind, influences the development of his character, and 
gives an appreciation of good literature. A memory 



MORNING EXERCISES 5 

gem, understood and well-spoken, will do more for the 
child than a whole week of the desultory reading les- 
sons frequently found in a rural school. Sometimes it 
is preferable to give one memory gem to all the children 
to learn. Occasionally a whole series of quotations 
can be given within the course of several days, ar- 
ranged under titles like these: — 

"Famous Sayings of Eminent Men." 
"Some Thanksgiving Thoughts." 
" Quotations from Longfellow." 

From these series children can select favorites for 
memorizing, thus affording opportunity for expressing 
individual taste. In a one-room school one may soon 
find the younger children eagerly appropriating the 
quotations of the older ones, causing the latter to seek 
merrily and sometimes distractedly for other gems 
when called upon unexpectedly to recite them in the 
morning exercisCo The one-room school has its dis- 
advantages, but have we truly found all its possibili- 
ties? What a wealth of material the younger children 
fall heir to in hearing the things taught to the older 
ones ! 

But the morning exercise need not be confined to 
preparation for the special exercise. It is often prefer- 
able to teach some important lesson to all the children 
at once. A timely lesson in hygiene is needed and 
understood as well by the younger children as by the 
older ones. 



6 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Hygiene lessons 
There is an epidemic in the near-by town — scarlet 
fever, perhaps. Everybody knows the farmer's cus- 
tomary trip to town on Saturday with either a part or 
all of his family, partly for business, and partly for 
social reasons. As a rule some child catches the dis- 
ease, exposes others by coming down with it in the 
school, and then the already too brief term becomes 
shortened by the month or six weeks it takes the chil- 
dren to recover. The moment the teacher hears of a 
case in town, she should acquaint her pupils with all 
the facts they need to know to protect themselves. 
She should describe dramatically, if she can, the dis- 
ease, its origin, manner of spreading, danger, and pos- 
sible after-effects. She should emphasize each one's 
duty in avoiding the disease, not only for his own sake, 
but for that of others. Therefore, *' Would it be hard 
to give up a few pleasures for a short time in order to 
save tired mother from a long anxious period of nurs- 
ing as well as to avoid the danger of exposing a great 
many other children? Think of the loss while absent 
from school for so many days. So much important 
work is going on and every person in the class is 
needed at his post every day." While talking let the 
spelling lesson for the day appear on the blackboard. 
There will be a list made up of words, as, epidemicy 
disease, scarlet Jever, contagion, contagious, sanitation, 
unsanitary, expose, exposing. Discuss the meanings 



MORNING EXERCISES 7 

of these words and let the children use them in sen- 
tences. You will thus have given a good language 
and spelling lesson through which your lesson in hygi- 
ene will be made more effective. 

Ethical lessons 

Whatever subject is being taught, the ethical train- 
ing of the child should not be lost sight of. History 
and literature afford many opportunities for this, and 
many incidents involving ethics may be referred to 
in the morning exercise. Local incidents furnish many 
excellent occasions to drive home some truths the 
children should know. Some good action done in the 
community can be made the finest object lesson in the 
development of character. In every locality there are 
dozens of individuals in whom the noblest qualities in 
manhood and womanhood are to be found. 

A piece of ground is needed for a school garden. The 
school grounds are too limited for that purpose. A 
farmer whose land adjoins the grounds donates an acre 
to the school. The teacher points out to the children 
the public spirit of the man. He is expecting no re- 
ward for his acts but that which will come to him in the 
honor and affection of others. Thus may be impressed 
the benefits and satisfactions of community service. 

The children should be made to feel a sense of grati- 
tude toward their parents and their community for 
the privileges of education in the comfortable quar- 
ters that have been provided for them. That gratitude 



8 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

can be best shown in the use they make of their oppor- 
tunities. 

Take a single occurrence Hke the following: A bliz- 
zard drifts the roads so badly in a country district 
that they are impassable and school must either be 
closed for several days, or continued with the ranks so 
broken that the results are highly unsatisfactory. The 
fathers of the children take matters in hand. Arrange- 
ments are made over the telephone to gather up the 
children in sleds. By the cooperation of the men the 
roads are broken, the drifts are shoveled in the worst 
places and the children arrive at school on time. If 
the teacher does not make use of her opportunity that 
day to help the children appreciate what their fathers 
have done in giving up their time and facing the 
weather for them, and does not help those children 
to determine to do esi>ecially good work on that day, 
she has failed where she had a fine opportunity to 
develop generosity, unselfishness, and gratitude. She 
also has failed to set the high value upon education 
that the farmers did when they left their problems of 
sheltering and feeding stock under severe weather con- 
ditions in order to take their children to school. 

Another local matter comes up. An unobtrusive 
item is in a local paper about a good position coming 
to a well-known young man in the county. John was 
industrious, honest, not more brilliant than his fel- 
lows, but he saw the importance of preparing himself 
for his place in fife by getting a good education. True, 



MORNING EXERCISES 9 

he had to let some pleasures go by. He could not wear 
quite as expensive clothes as some, nor make money 
quite so early in life as they. But he is making up for 
all that now because of the large salary he receives. 
Besides that his work is interesting, and he can enjoy 
many intellectual pleasures the others never can appre- 
ciate because they did not develop themselves. 

By the right kind of cooperation between parent 
and teacher the child can be helped to make important 
decisions in his life through the inspiration received in 
the morning exercise. Suggestions that are intended for 
a particular child should be given in such a general way 
that he feels no personal reference to himself, and is 
far from suspecting that his problems have been a 
matter of serious conference between his parents and 
his teacher. 

Here also is the place where public recognition can 
be given to a child who is seriously trying to overcome 
some fault or to do something else equally heroic. The 
teacher's knowledge of the situation must help her to 
decide whether this ought to be done in the presence 
of the child or during his temporary absence from the 
room. A timid child can be much helped by praise for 
his efforts at the right time. For example, everybody 
in the room knows what a weakling our soft-voiced, 
timid, puny, little Jamie is. But he has done one thing 
to-day that shows the presence of some moral fiber in 
his make-up. Perhaps he came to school in the face of 
some great obstacle or temptation. Perhaps he did 



10 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

some unselfish act or made a sacrifice for parent or 
schoolmate. Who knows, the teacher may influence 
for good his whole career by expressing in the morning 
exercise her pride and happiness in his achievement. 
She can speak of the admiration of his schoolmates 
who see him growing into the kind of boy every one 
respects. Timid Jamie blossoms under this praise and 
is twice as willing and strong to overcome the next 
difficulty. Best of all, the teacher has helped not only 
Jamie, but every child in the room who has been led to 
appreciate Jamie's effort. Hereafter they will give 
him encouragement. By this means an ideal family 
relation can be developed in the schoolroom in which 
children will sincerely try to help strengthen one an- 
other's character. 

These are practical lessons drawn from the human 
life that the children touch, but they cultivate sym- 
pathy with the spiritual experiences of humanity 
expressed in literature and song. The Bible is a store- 
house of such lofty expression and, where communi- 
ties do not object, the best of its prose and poetry 
should become familiar. The pupils may learn and 
recite passages, and the teachers may profitably recite 
and read to them selections from the Bible and other 
of the world's best literature. 

Current events 

Current events can be the means of giving some of 
the most instructive lessons in history, government. 



MORNING EXERCISES 11 

spelling, and language, to say nothing of patriotism. 
In one instance the appointment of a new member to 
the supreme court bench was made the occasion for 
a careful study of that department of government, 
its purpose, members, qualifications, tenure of office, 
reason for tenure, and salaries. Such words as chief- 
justice, associate justices, interpret, judicial, judiciary, 
supreme court, appeal, and statute made the spelling 
list for the day, and appeared in original sentences for 
the children's language work. Newspapers and peri- 
odicals furnish much material that can be used to give 
a foundation for work in current history, civil govern- 
ment, language, and spelling. 

Biography 

The place of biography in the morning exercise can- 
not be overestimated. Children should come to know 
famous inventors, heroes, statesmen, writers, musi- 
cians, educators, and reformers of the past and pres- 
ent. They may learn from them the great lessons in 
perseverance, self-denial, loyalty, generosity, and at- 
tainment in spite of difficulties that those lives had 
to meet. 

The anniversary of the birth, the death, or some great 
achievement of a noted character may be the occa- 
sion for teaching his biography. School libraries should 
contain a liberal number of books on biography which 
children can read for themselves after interest has 
been stimulated by the morning exercise. Good arti- 



12 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

cles about living men and women of note are always 
available, and can be read with much profit to the 
children. Take, for example, the inventor, Thomas A. 
Edison. Throughout the year interest in this wonder- 
ful man may be kept alive by the frequent notices that 
appear about him in the papers. The children should 
know not only his youthful struggles under great diflS- 
culties, but should be able to see how these enabled 
him to be a vigorous, persevering, studious man. 

Study of pictures 

Political cartoons should hold an important place 
in the study of current events. Children should be able 
to read cartoons and understand their value in mould- 
ing public opinion. A careful description of a cartoon 
makes a good language exercise. Gradually the most 
famous cartoonists will become known to the children. 
Show them that a cartoonist requires a wider educa- 
tion than the mere development of his powers as an 
artist. 

Other pictures should accompany instruction in the 
morning exercise whenever they can be of use. When, 
in the illustration of some ideal or ethical lesson, a 
teacher incidentally uses a world's masterpiece in art 
and inculcates in the children a love for the picture 
because of an understanding of its meaning, the lesson 
is complete. At slight expense the teacher can secure 
very good copies of famous pictures for use in the 
school. She is wise if she begins with a few of the best 



MORNING EXERCISES 13 

and teaches them well, for her purpose will be defeated 
if she overwhelms the children with the many pictures 
at her command and impresses none of them upon 
their consciousness. Let us suppose that prepara- 
tion for a Christmas exercise is in progress. Introduce 
the children to the Sistine Madonna. Bring out the 
beauty and meaning of the picture. Acquaint them 
with the artist and the present location of the original, 
as matters of information. 

In the hand work, as gifts for members of their own 
families, they may mount some of the pictures they 
have studied during the year. In this way such pic- 
tures as Le RoUe's "The Shepherdess," Bonheur's 
"Horse Fair, "Hoffman's "Christ," Millet's "Angelus," 
and any of Landseer's pictures will be introduced into 
the community to stay. To the boys of the hero- 
worshiping age "Sir Galahad " should by all means be 
introduced. 

In the program for Mother's Day recorded below, 
reference is made to the presentation by the children 
of a copy of Whistler's "Mother." Interest was stimu- 
lated in the picture, not by questions about the date 
of birth and death and the nationality of the artist, 
but by pointing out the fact that he made a portrait 
of his mother that would last. What a mother she 
must have been to deserve this tribute from her son! 
The beautiful expression of her face shows the life she 
must have led to look like that when she was old. Then 
the teacher called attention to the repose, simplicity. 



14 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

and lack of frills in the picture. She emphasized the 
thought that "if you are not beautiful at sixteen it is 
Nature's fault; if you are not beautiful at sixty it is 
your own fault," for 

" We grow like the things our souls believe, — 
And rise or sink as we aim high or low.'* 

Devotional exercises 

In the days of our ancestors schools were opened 
with so-called devotional exercises, consisting of read- 
ings from the Bible and repeating the Lord's Prayer. 
In many schools each pupil was required to have a 
Bible as a part of his textbook equipment and from 
it he read a verse daily. Doubtless this exercise be- 
came in many instances a formal observance with 
little in it that was really devotional, but on the other 
hand, many people look back to those '* morning exer- 
cises " with respect and the belief that their influence 
was spiritually helpful. 

It is still a common practice for the teacher to read 
a passage from the Bible without comment and for the 
pupils to bow their head and unite in saying the Lord's 
Prayer, although doubtless nowhere is it insisted that 
all repeat the prayer. 

This question has a present-day importance, "Can 
the personal attitude of respect for the universal 
values that inhere in our human life be fostered in 
the public school without antagonizing those who 
have strong and divergent religious views?" 



MORNING EXERCISES 15 

The answer depends more upon the teacher's own 
breadth of view and tolerance than it does upon the 
doing or saying of any particular thing. But it does 
seem that, where there is no prohibiting law and where 
the sentiment of the school district is not opposed, 
teachers may still make judicious use of that long-time 
standard body of religious literature, the Bible, to the 
permanent benefit of her pupils. 

As to the Lord's Prayer, let the pupils learn to chant 
it. If they sing it thus with clear enunciation, well- 
modulated voices, and devotional feeling, it cannot 
fail to foster the development of genuine reverence. 

Morning exercises should be timely 

The teacher's success with the morning exercise 
depends largely upon her ability to adapt her subject- 
matter and its presentation to the individual needs of 
her children and community. Success wiU be easier 
to attain if she is a good reader and conversationalist. 
Her Enghsh also should be of such high order that it is 
a model for her pupils to copy. For source material 
she should have access to the following: — 

1. One local newspaper. 

2. One good metropolitan paper. 

3. One of the best periodicals (a weekly preferred). 

4. A farm paper suited to her section of the country (if 
she is a country teacher). 

5. Books on : 

a. hygiene; 

b. nature study — trees, birds, insects, flowers, 
seasons; 

c. agriculture. 



16 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

In the use of a newspaper or other periodical 
children should be taught to discriminate between 
the important and the unimportant. It requires good 
judgment on the teacher's part to make this discrimi- 
nation, but it can be done and is done by many teach- 
ers. The material that is trivial — fires, accidents, 
murders, and the hke — should be omitted in the 
discussions and the children should be led to see why 
they should be omitted. 

Closing of School 
Kinds of Exercise 

The end of the day's work should be marked, not 
necessarily by a formal exercise, but by a fitting close 
suitable to the time — a rounding-out of the day, so 
to speak. It may be a brief consideration of a thought 
that has been emphasized in a history, a reading, or 
a language lesson. 

Announcements of interest to the school and com- 
munity can be read, if they have not been given be- 
fore. Suggestions can be made for profitable conver- 
sations around the table at the evening meal. Ask 
the following questions occasionally, "What are you 
going to talk about at home to-night, Mary?'* A 
half-dozen children will be eager to reply, and if the 
day's work has been inspiring you will receive an in- 
teresting resume of its activities. One child is going 
to relate the story told in the morning exercise; an- 
other will speak of the lecturer who talked about the 



CLOSING OF SCHOOL 17 

raising of poultry; another will describe the invention 
discussed in the history class; still another the picture 
studied in art. This can be made a successful device 
for reducing inane conversation and the senseless and 
harmful gossip frequently characterizing table conver- 
sation. 

Sometimes a concert quotation, appropriate to the 
dominating spirit of the day, season, or hour, can be 
given. If the children have been planning or planting 
for Arbor Day, for instance, or have been doing some 
garden work either at home or at school, it would be 
suitable to close the day with a quotation like this 
from Whittier's poems : — 

"Give fools their gold and knaves their power; 
Let Fortune's bubbles rise or fall; 
Who sows a field or trains a flower 
Or plants a tree, is more than all." 

Above all things avoid a standardized stereotyped 
exercise. Its effectiveness lies in the newness and 
freshness of its content and presentation. Vary the 
exercises occasionally by an interesting report, a 
timely talk, a masterpiece in poetry or prose, or a 
song, given sometimes by the teacher, sometimes by 
individual pupils or the school as a whole. The exer- 
cises should by all means be adapted to the needs of 
the school and the community, and only the teacher 
who will take the trouble to study these needs will be 
as useful as she desires to be. 

These exercises should be short. Often a stanza 
from a good song or hymn may be sung. 



18 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Quality of exercise 

The closing exercise should be an echo of the morn- 
ing exercise. The day has been filled with successes 
and some failures. At times there may have been lack 
of harmony among the pupils and between teacher 
and pupils. But the children should close their day's 
work in a hopeful spirit and with, on the whole, a 
sense of satisfaction. 

The child that was corrected for some fault should 
go home with no feehng of injustice, but with a con- 
sciousness of a new opportunity to-morrow. 

This is no time for fault-finding, if indeed there is 
ever properly a time for it in school; no time for em- 
phasizing failures, no time for "lecturing." It is the 
time above all other times in school for cheerful op- 
timism, for the forward look, for commendation for 
successes, and for encouragement. The pupils should 
go from their school back to the community with the 
glow of cooperative effort by which they will be the 
better able to use their abihties that have been trained 
in school to promote the welfare of the community in 
which they live. 

Special-day Programs 

Obviously the character of special-day exercises 
should be both ethical and intellectual. Individuals 
should go away from them with higher ideals than 
they had before coming and with new food for thought. 



SPECIAL-DAY PROGRAMS 19 

Only material really worthy the attention of the au- 
dience and the efforts of the participants should ap- 
pear on the program. Unfortunately there are few 
books on the market to-day that contain in organ- 
ized form good material for such programs, because 
the demand for it has not yet made itself felt. The 
teacher, therefore, must rely largely on her own judg- 
ment, and she should exercise great care in the se- 
lection of subject-matter. She should frequently ask 
herself such questions as, "Is that worth a child's 
learning?" "Has it ethical merit?" "Will it increase 
love for the beautiful and true? " The program should 
consist of the best to be found in music, in literature, 
in art, and in current and past history. The prepara- 
tion of the pupil for rendering his part should give him 
training in appreciation and expression. 

The program should have unity 

If patriotism is the theme, all parts in the exercise 
should have some bearing upon that subject. 

A discordant program given in a country church 
recently illustrates the lack of unity. It was a Chil- 
dren's Day exercise of extreme length. Every pupil 
was honored with a place on the program. The recita- 
tions used for the occasion were mere doggerel. Long 
piano solos did not enrich the program, but afforded 
several young ladies opportunity to make their ap- 
pearance. Incidentally their parts served to demon- 
strate how indifferently music is taught in. the rural 



20 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

parts of our country. A hoop drill by young ladies 
was entirely out of place. A young men's quartette 
sang "Juanita.** 

To listen to this program the church was packed. 
There was not even standing-room. The audience 
stayed patiently in the sweltering heat for over three 
hours, so great is the hunger for something to break 
the monotony of country life. A golden opportunity 
was lost ! The hearts of those people could have been 
stirred through suitable exercises. Appropriate chil- 
dren's poems, plays, stories, and music from writers 
and musicians of merit might have been selected. 
Some fine passages and stories relating to childhood 
from the life of the Great Teacher could have been 
read. A brief but earnest talk about our obligations 
to children should have been made by some one cap- 
able of giving it. After such a program not one parent 
would have gone home without an increased rever- 
ence for the sacredness of childhood and a renewed 
determination to make a fuller, richer life possible 
for his own sons and daughters. 

The following is an example of a Christmas pro- 
gram that is really educational and also illustrates 
unity and brevity: — 

A Christmas Program 

1. Christmas greeting. (The entire school, massed in 
front facing the audience, say in concert, "We wish 
you all a very merry Christmas.") 

2. Christmas quotations. (Children remaining on floor 



SPECIAL-DAY PROGRAMS 21 

and answering to roll-call with appropriate memory 
gems.) 

3. Song service: — 

"While Shepherds Watched." Stanzas 1 and 3. 
"Christmas Carol" (Sears). Stanzas 1 and 4. 
"Holy Night." 
"Antioch." Stanzas 1 and 3. 

4. Christmas in Other Lands. (Brief talks by group of 
older children.) 

5. Songs: — 

"God Rest you Merry, Gentlemen." (Old English 

"O Come, All Ye Faithful." 

6. Play: "The Birds' Christmas Carol." (Adapted from 
Kate Douglas Wiggin's story.) 

7. Songs: — 

"Three Kings of Orient." (Old English carol.) 
"The Fanfare and Christmas Carol." 
"We Bring Our Gifts" (while little children distrib- 
ute their gifts to parents). 

8. Song: "Santa Claus." (Sung by primary children and 
followed by innocent Christmas fun with Santa Claus.) 

9. Burlesque: "The Day After Christmas." (A brief two- 
scene play.) 

10. Song: "Jingle Bells." 

The program should he short and varied 

Great length of program and monotony should be 
avoided. Even a short exercise is fatiguing if it is 
unvaried. By interspersing music and the lighter 
parts of the younger children the interest of the au- 
dience can be held. However, the younger children 
must not be sacrificed for the pleasure of the audience. 
They do their best work in the early part of the pro- 
gram before they are tired. 



22 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

All children should have a part 

It is our business to develop all children, but how 
are we to give every one an opportunity for expres- 
sion without overcrowding the program? Here is 
where the value of short, instructive, well-spoken 
quotations from the writings of eminent writers comes 
in. For a patriotic program quotations like the fol- 
lowing can be given : — 

"I am not a Virginian, but an American." (Patrick 
Henry.) 

"We must all hang together, or assuredly we shall all 
hang separately." (Benjamin Franklin.) 

"Be sure you are right, then go ahead." (David Crockett.) 

"Let our object be our country, our whole country, and 
nothing but our country." (Daniel Webster.) 

"Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and insepa- 
rable." (Daniel Webster.) 

"Be just and fear not; let all the ends thou aimest at be 
thy country's, thy God's, and truth's." (Shakespeare.) 

"No man's vote is lost which is cast for the right." (John 
Quincy Adams.) 

Practice in correct expression is given and a famil- 
iarity with great authors is gained if, in reciting the 
quotations, the little children make complete sen- 
tences and give the name of the person who said the 
words; as, "U. S. Grant said, *Let us have peace.' '* 
If the teacher gives the historical setting when teach- 
ing these gems and acquaints her pupils with the his- 
torical figures who wrote or said them, the children 
will read them with such feeling that the moral effect 
upon the listeners is unquestioned. But, best of all, 



SPECIAL-DAY PROGRAMS 23 

the children are reading understandingly and are 
gaining an aesthetic appreciation of good Enghsh 
expression. The teacher will do well to apply these 
thoughts to current local history whenever she can. 
Children who study patriotic quotations in the light 
of community experiences cannot fail to have an 
unusual grasp of the history lived by the men whose 
words they are using. 

A patriotic exercise follows that suggests what may 
be given in February or July or on any patriotic 
occasion by children in a mixed school. 

A patriotic program 

1. Song: "The American." (Music by R. Stahl.) 

2. Concert recitation: "Breathes there a man with soul so 
dead." (Scott.) 

3. Roll-call. (Children respond with patriotic quotations.) 

4. Play: "Washington's Birthday." By a group of little 
children. (If the program is given on July 4th a little 
play "Independence Day" by small boys could be 
given.) 

5. "Our National Songs." By a number of children who 
give a brief history of each song, each explanation be- 
ing followed by the singing of a stanza or two of the 
song described. (Last song, "Star-Spangled Banner.") 

6. Address to the Flag. (Henry Ward Beecher.) By an 
older pupil. 

7. Quotation in concert: " 'T is the schoolhouse that 
stands by the flag." (Butterworth.) By little children 
who appear on stage with flags. 

8. Flag driU. By eight or more girls, followed by one of 
the girls reciting : — 

9. "The American Flag." (Drake.) 

10. Song: "Our Fair Land Forever." (Harrison Millard.) 



24 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

In giving such a program as this, a large number of 
children may take part and yet the performance not 
be made too long. In number five of the program, 
about twelve' children could be given a place. The 
flag drill and the concert reading give opportunity 
for indefinite numbers and still brevity may be se- 
cured. In case the program is to commemorate the 
deeds of some national hero, as Washington or Lin- 
coln, a brief story of his life may be added and some 
of his characteristic sayings or rules of conduct might 
be given. 

Above all, the preparation for a patriotic program 
should instill love and loyalty for their country in the 
hearts of the children. The startling apathy in the 
present war of many in our rural population and the 
open disloyalty in some centers are conclusive testi- 
mony to the importance of teaching patriotism more 
effectively than we have done in the past. 

In selecting the individuals for the program the 
teacher should be guided not only by her ideal of a 
successful entertainment, but also by the educational 
needs of the children. Injustice to all children is done 
when there is overemphasis of the dramatic powers 
of one child simply because he has the ability that will 
secure a successful program. Ethical harm that may 
be done that child in developing selfishness and a 
sense of superiority far outweigh any good wrought 
by the exercise, and the latent powers of expression 
in the other children are not brought to the surface. 



SPECIAL-DAY PROGRAMS 25 

This does not imply, however, that any one should 
serve in a capacity he is absolutely unfitted to fill. 
Only careful study of the child will reveal its needs and 
abilities. 

Community interests should be considered 

A community has many forces and these should be 
utilized and developed. Make use of all the musical 
talent that exists, however limited it may seem, and 
music will grow in your community. It is wonderful 
how ways and means for procuring musical instru- 
ments and for instruction can be found when once 
there is created an interest in music. 

To develop power of initiative and leadership in 
the community the teacher should throw responsi- 
bilities and burdens on the children as soon as they 
become qualified to assume them. This cannot be 
done at the outset, and it will always be more or less 
difficult for the teacher, but, when she considers that 
the character of her pupils is often best developed by 
bearing responsibility, she will be willing to give what- 
ever time and thought are necessary to this end. She 
may be sure that her efforts will not go unrewarded. 

A school-teacher at the close of her third year found 
herself too busy with important community affairs 
to give a promised closing-day program. As she was 
considering what she could say to the children, a 
bright idea came to her. Here was an opportunity to 
test the fundamental value of her work as a teacher. 



26 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

She named a committee of five children between the 
ages of ten and thirteen years. A few suggestions were 
given as to where to find materials, and they set to 
work. Each member of the committee chose a re- 
sponsibility; each one had a group of children to 
whom he assigned and taught parts. The busy teacher 
those last few days saw earnest groups rehearsing 
during intermissions wherever a quiet corner could 
be found. She kept her hands off and they did not 
trouble her with a single question until they submitted 
the program to her on the last day. So well had her 
previous work in teaching reading and music been 
done that a very creditable program was given. These 
same children now assume greater responsibilities in 
the more elaborate programs they are able to give. 

Community days 

By common consent a community may adopt cer- 
tain fixed days of the year for annual celebrations. 
The community referred to in the foregoing com- 
memorates by special observance five events during 
the year: — 

1. In February, a patriotic exercise, the occasion being 
either Lincoln's or Washington's birthday. 

2. May, Mother's Day, to honor motherhood and to teach 
children to reverence it. 

3. July 4th, Independence Day, the great national holi- 
day of the year. That all may participate in this cele- 
bration without stopping the harvesting of grain one 
rural community is accustomed to gather in the evening 
at the school. The program includes community sing- 



SPECIAL-DAY PROGRAMS 27 

ing, music by the Community Band, speaking, an ap- 
propriate historical play, living pictures of historical 
interest. It is given in the school yard and brings con- 
tiguous neighborhoods together in an ideal way. 

4. October, Anniversary Day of the organization of the 
school and the community. A very important gath- 
ering during which past history of the locality is 
graphically reviewed with lantern slides, showmg past 
conditions and hardships and also efforts made at better- 
ment. Progress during the past year is detailed, commu- 
nity growth summarized, and future hopes outlined. 

5. December, Christmas Day. There is a wealth of mate- 
rial in music, art, and literature, and the program 
motivates most of the reading, language, spelling, his- 
tory, and handwork for the month. 

There are many advantages in fixing dates for an- 
nual celebrations. The community is linked together 
by common purposes. The- events are far enough 
apart to prevent interruption of other activities 
or overtaxing community interest. Children can be 
taught economy and system by the careful storing- 
away of materials used in decoration, such as flags, 
garlands, and decorative crepe paper, with the view 
to using them again the following year. They can 
learn that, with the expenditure of a few cents addi- 
tional, entirely new effects can be produced with the 
same materials. The children's notebooks show a rec- 
ord of valuable material in music, literature, and art, 
and because they know its lasting value, they put their 
best efforts into the mechanical execution of the work. 
Not much formal drill in penmanship and spelling is 
necessary with such motivation. 



28 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

A program for "Mother's Day " in the community 
mentioned above is given here. The exercise was 
planned so as not to take too much time for prep- 
aration. It was to be the children's loving tribute to 
their mothers. Passages paying tribute to mother- 
hood were collected from various sources. These were 
discussed and read with feeling during the reading 
period. A few are given here: — 

"The Lord could not be everywhere, so he made mothers." 
(Jewish Rabbi.) 

"Hundreds of stars in the pretty sky; 
Hundreds of shells on the shore together; 
Hundreds of birds that go singing by. 
Hundreds of bees in the sunny weather. 
Hundreds of dewdrops to greet the dawn; 
Hundreds of lambs in the purple clover; 
Hundreds of butterflies out on the lawn; 
But only one mother the wide world over." 

(George Cooper.) 
"I remember my mother's prayers — and they have al- 
ways followed me. They have clung to me all my life." 
(Abraham Lincoln.) 

"The mother's heart is the child's schoolroom." (Henry 
Ward Beecher.) 

"Mother is the name for God in the lips and hearts of little 
children." (Thackeray.) 

Other gems were selected from the writings of 
Field, Riley, Macaulay, Kiphng, Margaret Sangster, 
Dickens, George Eliot, and from the Bible. 

Without the knowledge of their mothers the children 
bought a framed reproduction of Whistler's "Portrait 
of his Mother." The presentation of it to the commu- 
nity was one of the closing features of the program. 



SPECIAL-DAY PROGRAMS 29 

Several periods for handwork, language, and pen- 
manship had been used to prepare a folder inviting 
the mothers to the exercise. This folder contained 
a half -penny size picture of Whistler's ** Mother," a 
suitable quotation, and the brief invitation. The 
lessons learned in arrangement, in neatness, and in 
composition, while writing the invitation, can be 
inferred. 

The young men and women of the community, 
former pupils of the school, assisted the children in the 
singing. An effective touch was given to the program 
by having a young man, in whose promising voice 
the community feels a deep interest, sing "Mother 
Machree." 

In preparing the program the teacher and children 
talked things over freely, discussed how much their 
mothers meant to them, and considered some of the 
little things they could do to lighten mother's cares 
and save her strength. The exercise was planned to 
make tired mothers happy and show them that the 
sacrifices they were making to give their children an 
education were appreciated. "Which would our 
mothers prize the more," the children were asked, 
"for us to honor them by buying a lot of white car- 
nations from the hothouse in the near-by town, or by 
gathering with our own hands the beautiful flowers 
so plentiful in the fields and woods around us? " Their 
answer was the latter, because they had been taught 
two things: first, never to depend upon the town for 



30 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

anything that the country could supply as well; and 
second, that a gift made with our hands is appreciated 
far more by the recipient than one bought with money. 
Accordingly, early on Sunday morning, happy voices 
could be heard over the whole community as busy 
fingers were gathering the flowers with the dew still 
upon them. The flowers were collected and turned over 
to a committee that decorated the building for the 
afternoon exercise. The blackboard was transformed 
by a tasteful border of crab-apple blossoms. Wild- 
plum blossoms and lilacs made beautiful masses 
in corners. Bluebells, wild sweet-williams, pansies, 
spring beauties, and anemones were in evidence every- 
where. Violets were tied in countless nosegays with 
green and white ribbon and set in shallow water to be 
kept fresh for distribution by the flower girls in the 
exercise, "Blossoms for Thoughts." The grandmothers 
were honored with especially large nosegays. 

In "Blossoms for Thoughts" the Spirit of May, 
robed in white and carrying a flower basket, calls to 
the children and asks what unselfish thoughts for 
mother they can express in order to claim the flowers 
they would like to bestow on mother. Accordingly 
the children come forward and reply in rhymes ex- 
pressing thoughts especially suited to each child. 
Ruby, with the little sister at home, promises to take 
care of her; Ezra, who finds it so hard to obey any 
one, will listen to mother in the future; Alice, an only 
child, is going to learn to dress herself and brush her 



SPECIAL-DAY PROGRAMS 31 

own hair; restless Winfield, whose mother is in the 
hospital, will keep quiet when she comes back. This 
is followed by a general distribution of flowers to all 
mothers present by the two attendants of the Spirit 
of May. 

The program ends as it began with a number in- 
dicating the close ties by which the community is held 
together. Following is the outline of the program: — 

Program for Mother's Day 

1. Quotation: "If you can do nothing else in the com- 
munity center than draw men together so that they 
will have common feeling you will have set forward 
the cause of civilization and the cause of human free- 
dom." (Woodrow Wilson.) 

2. Song: "America.'' 

3. Song: "Home, Sweet Home." 

4. Quotations: "Tributes to Mother." By seventeen 
children. 

5. Song: "Child and Mother." (Eugene Field.) 

6. Recitation: "A Boy's Bill." 

7. Recitation: "Beautiful Hands." 

8. Vocal solo: "Mother Machree." 

9. Recitation: "Birthday Prayer for his Mother." (Van 
Dyke.) 

10. Song: "My Mother's Memory." 

11. " Blossoms for Thoughts." By nine children. 

a. Song; "Greetings to Mothers." 
h. Dialogue between Spirit of May and children, 
c. Song: "Blossoms for Mother" (while children dis- 
tribute flowers to mothers). 

12. A brief history of " Mother's Day," followed by 

13. Presentation of a framed portrait of Whistler's 
"Mother." 

14. Song: "Blest be the Tie that Binds." School and au- 
dience. 



82 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

The Thanksgiving season affords much material 
for instructive as well as pleasing programs. The 
harvest may be emphasized and a special study made 
of corn. Related material may be found in such 
songs as "We plough the Fields" (translated by 
Jane M. Campbell), and "Thanksgiving Song" (Gay- 
nor); in the Bible, the Parable of the Sower, and the 
Twenty-third Psalm; in art. Millet's "Gleaners." 
Such stories as " Old-Fashioned Thanksgiving" (Al- 
cott), "Ezra's Thanksgiving out West" (Eugene 
Field), and sketches from "Standish of Standish" 
(Austin), may be read to the children, and repro- 
duced by them as a part of the program. 

In a one-room country school, where the children 
ranged from six to twenty years of age, the following 
program was given. The children had been making 
a study of Puritan customs. They made a simple 
attempt at costuming. Ordinary printing-paper was 
used to cut collars and cuffs for the boys. The girls 
wore plain white aprons and kerchiefs over their dark 
dresses. The mothers cooperated in making the occa- 
sion of historical value by serving a simple New Eng- 
land dinner for which the children designed and made 
an attractive and appropriate folder containing the 
menu, in which Plymouth Rock, the Mayflower, In- 
dian arrowheads, and the dates, 1620-1914, were 
artistically involved. Best of all was their unanimous 
decision to include on this folder a sentiment they 
had learned to understand and appreciate : — 



SPECIAL-DAY PROGRAMS 83 

"O strong hearts and true! Not one went back in the May- 
flower! 

No, not one looked back, who had set his hand to the 
ploughing." 

Program for Thanksgiving 

1. Reading: The Twenty-third Psalm. (Bible.) 

2. Song: "We Plough the Fields." School and audience. 

3. Reading: President's Proclamation. 
. 4. Songs: 

"Thanksgiving Song." (Beach.) 
"Thanksgiving Day." (Edmonds.) 

5. Reading: "The Embarkation." 

6. Reading: "The Landing of the Pilgrims." (Hemans.) 

7. Play: "Courtship of Miles Standish." By older chil- 
dren. (Adapted from Longfellow's poem.) 

8. Song: "Thanksgiving Song." (Gaynor.) 

9. Reading: "The First Thanksgiving Day." (Preston.) 

10. Quotation: "O strong hearts and true, etc." In con- 
cert by all the children. 

11. Play: "The First Thanksgiving Day." By little chil- 
dren. 

12. Song: "We thank Thee." (Emerson.) 



Preparing the program 

Special-day programs should as far as possible be 
made up of exercises drawn from the regular school 
work. This has been noted before, but it will bear 
reemphasis. It will be a natural incentive to effort 
if the pupils know that their best drawings are to be 
exhibited, that their best compositions, maps, arith- 
metic papers, etc., will find a conspicuous place on 
Parents' Day. In short, a great deal, probably most, 
of the preparation can be made through the regular 



34 THE SPECIAX SUBJECTS 

school activities. Moreover, by thus making the 
training a part of the daily work of the school the 
program will be given much more effectively, and 
what is more important its educational value for the 
pupils will be greatly enhanced. 

Again, besides the stimulus given to reading and 
other subjects, the preparation of special-day pro- 
grams, if made in this way, will go far to give the 
pupils permanently a poise, a freedom from self -con- 
sciousness, that will help them in after-life. To them 
speaking to an audience will be as natural as speak- 
ing in earnest conversation to a friend. They will be 
ready to perform the public duties that their place in 
the community requires. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

Note. — As emphasized in the foregoing chapter the material for 
school exercises should be gathered in the course of the regular school 
work. The following books may be found useful to supplement the 
source^ referred to on page 15: — ■ 

1. Morning exercises: — 

Morning Exercises for All the Year. Joseph Sindelar. 

2. Poetry and prose selections : — 

a. Selections for Study and Memorizing. Riverside Literature 
Series. 

b. Golden Hours. Prudence Lewis. 

3. Telling stories : — 

a. How to Tell Stories to Children. Sara Cone Bryant. 

b. Stories and Story-Telling. Angelina M. Keyes. 

4. Biographies : — 

a. Makers of the Nation. Fanny E. Coe. 

b. Captains of Industry. James Parton. 

5. Inspiration : — 

a. Ethics for Children. Ella L. Cabot. 

b. Ballads of American Bravery. Clinton Scollard. 



SPECIAL-DAY PROGRAMS 35 

c. American Patriotic Prose and Verse. Stevens and Stevens. 

d. The Golden Rule Series of Readers. 
6. For special days: — 

a. Our Country in Poem and Prose. Eleanor A. Persons, 

b. Recitations for Assembly and Class-Room. Anna T. L. 
O'Nem. 

c. Our American Holidays. A series of books edited by 
Robert H. Schauffler, giving the history, observance, 
spirit, and significance as related in prose and verse of — 

Arbor Day 
Christmas 
Easter 
Flag Day 
Independence Day 
Lincoln s Birthday 
Memorial Day 
Thanksgiving 
Washington s Birthday 

d. To Mother. An anthology of mother verse with an intro- 
duction by Kate Douglas Wiggin, 



CHAPTER II 

MUSIC 

Good music and its place in school 

Good music is first of all a life-long source of en- 
joyment. Not only is it elevating and refining, but 
it contains that spark of life that warms the heart. 
It has the charm of perpetual youth. 

Our school task, as it relates to music, is clearly 
twofold. We must teach the children how to produce 
good music and we must teach them to appreciate 
good music. 

Singing is the universal form of musical expression 
and it should be taught in every school, because all 
children should know how to sing. 

There are three phases to the teaching of singing: 
(a) teaching how to use the voice so that musical 
sounds are made rather than noises; (6) teaching how 
to sing songs by imitation or rote ; (c) teaching how 
to sing the conventional musical characters, i.e., how 
to render with the voice the melodies and harmonies 
that lie hidden in the printed staff. This is reading 
music. This chapter is given chiefly to the discus- 
sion of the teaching of these three phases of singing. 

Teaching to enjoy music, i.e., teaching an appre- 
ciation of music, is very similar to teaching apprecia- 



MUSIC 37 

tion of literature, painting, sculpture, or architecture. 
Some there are who beheve that appreciation of 
art in any of its forms cannot be taught. Without 
denying or admitting this, it certainly is true that 
children, as well as adults, who have learned to sing 
good music with intelligence and with feeling, and 
those who have listened again and again to good music, 
are better attuned to enjoy it than are those who have 
not had these experiences. This is considered briefly 
in the latter part of the chapter. 

While singing is the more universal, instrumental 
music is the highest form of musical expression. Every 
child should have an opportunity to learn to play on 
some instrument, but the purpose of this chapter 
precludes any but a brief reference to the place of 
instrumental music in the schools. 

The Voice 

The importance of voice production has never been 
fully recognized nor appreciated. This vitally impor- 
tant element in music-teaching has been neglected. 
To teach the reading of music without giving voice 
production its proper place and emphasis is a waste 
of time, energy, and money. The ability to read 
music is useless without the ability to properly pro- 
duce tone. Only those who properly produce the voice 
can be relied upon to maintain accuracy of interval 
and pitch. The first duty of the public schools, then, 
in music, is to train children to make tones correctly. 



38 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

The requirements for the proper production of tone 
or voice are few; in fact, there are but three, and they 
are also the requirements for general good health. 
Therefore, while training pupils to sing properly, 
teachers are also promoting the health of their pupils. 

The first of these requirements is fresh air at the 
right temperature (65 to 68 degrees). Ventilation 
must be good or no permanent fine quality of tone 
can be gained. 

The second is proper breathing. The condition for 
proper breathing is correct position, sitting and stand- 
ing. When standing, pupils should rest equally on 
both feet; the body should be slightly inclined forward 
from the hips; the ears, shoulders, hips, and instep 
should be in line. When sitting, the best position is 
that in which the singer sits as far back as possible 
in his seat, the body from the waist up being inclined 
forward, chest up (but not strained), forearms rest- 
ing on the desk, elbows far apart (the desk must be 
of the right height). Resting the arms on the desk 
removes their weight from the shoulders and neck 
and frees the ribs below the arm pits. Do not allow 
the arms to be folded behind the back nor crossed 
over the chest. Any position that contracts the chest 
is bad. Seated in the correct position (be sure the 
back is not humped) it is almost impossible to breathe 
other than correctly.^ 

The third requirement for proper voice production 
1 See "posture" in chapter on " Physical Education." 



MUSIC 39 

is the emission of tones free from all disagreeable 
qualities. To secure this the vocal organs in throat 
and mouth must be relaxed. The child who sings 
with a soft, sweet tone, with face and neck muscles 
relaxed, sings correctly. This relaxation may be 
gained by the training suggested in the following 
paragraphs, but it depends also on fresh air, good ven- 
tilation, and good position, upon which emphasis has 
just been laid. 

Quality of tone 

All teachers should make a study of the physiology 
of the throat and larynx from the voice-teacher *s 
standpoint. Some excellent books on this subject are 
given in the bibliography at the end of this chapter. 

Up to six years of age the child should sing in a 
voice not much louder than a whisper. The singing 
periods, or any periods of voice use, should be very 
short. From six to twelve years of age the soft tone, 
with increased range, should be continued. The sing- 
ing periods may be gradually lengthened to about 
twenty minutes. At the age of twelve the child voice 
should be at its prime. No practical differences are 
found in the voices of girls and boys up to this age, 
except that the voice of the boy will be stronger, 
richer, and fuller than that of the girl. This is due 
to the more vigorous physical exercise participated in 
by the boy that develops in him a stronger physique. 

All voices of children should be soprano. The 



40 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

writer has tried more than twenty-five thousand voices 
during his experience and has found no real contralto 
voices among children under the age of twelve years. 
A child of this age with a low voice would be almost 
a freak. Occasionally a boy's voice will be found that 
changes about this time. This is the exception, how- 
ever. A slight knowledge of the laws of sound will 
convince any one that a short thin string cannot pro- 
duce a low pitch. Some children will be found, who, 
on first hearing, will appear to have low voices; but 
with proper handling these children will be found to 
have the "high voice." As soon as a child finds this 
high voice he falls into its use almost unconsciously. 
Exceptions will be found among children with ade- 
noids. The removal of the adenoids generally raises 
the voice, showing that the low voice was unnatural, 
being brought on by inflammation that thickens the 
vocal bands. 

Monotones 

All normal children can learn to sing. Normal chil- 
dren are those who have no malformations due to 
disease, such as the results of measles, scarlet fever, 
etc. Imbecile children must be classed as subnormal. 

Any normal child who can raise and lower his voice 
in speech can raise and lower it in singing. Imitation 
is the best method of curing those that appear to be 
monotones. Many teachers insist that these "out of 
tunes " shall listen while the others sing. This method 



MUSIC 41 

will cure but few. It is just as reasonable to expect a 
child to learn to swim by watching others as it is to 
expect him to learn to sing by Hstening to others. If 
he would sing he must try for himself. Children's 
voices respond very quickly to the effort that comes 
with "trying." Most monotones will learn to match 
pitch in a few trials by attempting to imitate a child 
who can sing. Have the singing child make a tone, 
telling the monotone to watch the lips of the singer. 
Immediately let the monotone try to imitate the 
singer. Partial monotones will be almost instantly 
eliminated. More stubborn cases will be started in 
the right direction by a few such trials. If this fails, 
have the monotone try to imitate a siren whistle, a 
bird call, or some other sound of nature. The at- 
tempt to imitate the call of the cuckoo is one of 
the most effective remedies (pitch the call high). Oc- 
casionally the child will not be able to imitate any- 
thing. Find the pitch, high or low, that the child 
most frequently sounds in his attempts to sing and 
have him slide his voice up and down till he finds 
how to "slide." From then on the task is easy and 
requires only patience and persistent effort to gain 
success. Never tire the child in these efforts. Ten 
seconds a day, till cured, is time enough to give a 
child individually. If you can take him to a piano or 
reed organ, the lesson will be more quickly learned. 

Children in the first grade respond readily. Those 
of the second grade, who have been neglected in the 



42 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

first, take more time. The longer this work is delayed, 
the more difficult it becomes. Do not give up. If the 
child has no physical defects he can be cured. Sing- 
ing in tune is more a matter of placing the tone cor- 
rectly in the mouth than it is of "ear." Many great 
violinists, who never play out of tune, cannot sing in 
tune. Their "ear" is certainly not defective. In ex- 
ceedingly stubborn cases it might save time to have 
the child physically examined as to condition of hear- 
ing apparatus and vocal organs. All monotones should 
be cured by the end of the first year in school. 

Combined grades, bringing together children of 
widely different ages, complicate training in voice 
production, as the younger children are likely to try 
to imitate the heavier tone quality of the older chil- 
dren. Danger to the younger children can be mini- 
mized by seating heavier-voiced children in the front 
of the room just back of the monotones if there be any. 
The lightest voices should be in the back of the room. 
All should sing softly. 

Lovd and soft singing 

How softly should children sing? So softly that the 
united tones of sixty to seventy children cannot be 
heard outside the room when doors and windows are 
closed. There is nothing sweeter on earth than the 
singing of little children in this manner. By the time 
this habit becomes fixed it will be found that a louder 
tone, which yet retains the same sweet quality, is pos- 



MUSIC 43 

sible. It is not always politic to try for this result at 
once. Communities have so long been accustomed 
to harsh, discordant singing in the schools that the 
change should be wrought gradually or such a hue 
and cry may be raised that the school singing will be 
discredited. 

The Sunday School is a serious offender in this mat- 
ter of tone production. It can be changed only when 
the children from force of habit use the same tone 
in the Sunday School that is used in the Day School. 
Parents are slow to accept the change in style. Many 
will support their children in not singing at all if 
the change to soft singing is insisted on suddenly. 
The parents will need as much education in this as 
the children. Their education must come through the 
children. 

Seating plan in combination grades 

In combination grades place all the light, sweet 
voices in the back of the room. Seat all the monotones 
in the front of the room. The strongest, heaviest 
voices should sit immediately back of the monotones. 
Seated in this way the light voices will not be injured 
by trying to imitate the heavier ones. The heavier 
voices will not be dragged down from the pitch by the 
monotones. The monotones will be helped by hear- 
ing correct pitch coming from behind them. This is 
trying on the teacher and the visitor. However, the 
teacher ought to sacrifice her nerves and "ear" rather 



44 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

than work an injury to the children. A word of ex- 
planation to the unenlightened visitor will be sufficient 
to set him in the right way of thinking. 

The changing voices of children 

No real vocal difficulties are encountered up to 
about the sixth grade. In this grade with children 
twelve years of age and over a new and very serious 
phase of voice development is encountered. It may 
not present itself till later, but is frequently found 
in this grade. This difficulty, this stumbling-block, 
is the changing voice. Once encountered it is con- 
stantly present even through the high school. It is a 
difficulty that can be surmounted if a little common 
sense is brought into play. 

The change in the voice of the boy causes a drop 
of an octave in pitch. An entirely different quality of 
voice is the result. In the girls a drop (lowering) of 
about a fifth (five tones) in general range and a thick- 
ening of the tone quality results. In the boy the larynx 
increases rapidly to almost twice its former size. The 
vocal chords double in length and become thicker. 
The vocal chords of the girl increase in the proportion 
of five to seven in length and also thicken. With the 
girl there is but little increase in the size of the larynx. 
Perception of the change in the voice of the boy is 
very apparent, as his voice frequently performs some 
very queer antics, making supernatural changes in a 
lightning-like manner from a sepulchral bass to an 



MUSIC 45 

ethereal soprano and — down again. Owing to this 
forced recognition of a changed condition fewer boys' 
voices are now injured than are those of girls. The 
change for the girl is much more dangerous, as it is 
not so perceptible. The symptoms of change in the 
girl will be a light hoarseness or huskiness. There 
will be no sudden transition from high to low pitch. 
From day to day her voice will vary, one day being 
a soprano in range, the next, an alto. She should be 
carefully watched by the teacher and placed where 
she belongs for that day. 

The boy seldom loses his high voice (soprano voice), 
and it does no harm to continue to use it, if he can be 
persuaded to do so. His new voice is so man-like that 
he will probably prefer it, and worse, almost every 
boy in the room will try to imitate him and want to 
sing " bass! " This desire of the boy to be "man-Hke " 
is the real hindrance of a changed voice. It not only 
demoralizes tonally the boy who has it, but it demor- 
alizes all the other boys in the room. Be patient till 
the newness wears ojff and things will go along very 
well, even if the voice is temporarily roughed up a bit. 

The important precaution is to strain no voice dur- 
ing this period of change. At this age more voices are 
ruined than at any other time. Some advise the boy 
to stop singing during this period. If this is right for 
fifteen minutes a day, why not advise him to stop 
talking the remainder of the day? Obviously such 
advice is wrong. The chances are that, if he stops 



46 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

singing at this time, he will never start again. The 
boy who has sung correctly up to this time has little 
difficulty during this period. He generally drops to 
alto, then to tenor, then to the voice, either tenor or 
bass, that is to be his permanently. This permanent 
adjustment is not, however, fully established till about 
the age of twenty-six. 

Fortunately but few changing voices appear in the 
sixth grade. Eternal vigilance, though, must be the 
attitude of the teacher from this point on. 

While the change in the girFs voice is more danger- 
ous, because it is not so discernible, the danger dis- 
appears if the voice is placed each day where it be- 
longs. No interference with the regular voice work 
should occur. 

Strive, not only in the music classes but in all 
classes, for correct use of the voice. Correct position 
in sitting and standing is most necessary for those 
who show changing voices. As the child sits and 
stands during this p)eriod, he is likely to sit and stand 
through life. He is growing rapidly not only in voice 
but in body. Give him frequent resting spells by 
alternating sitting and standing. The correct way of 
sitting is the most comfortable. 

Excluding the few changing voices in the sixth 
grade, up to and through the eighth grade the tone 
quality of the child is at its best. It is wonderful in 
its beauty of quality. Boy choirs — good ones — 
draw their singers from these grades. Teachers who 



MUSIC 47 

can visit a large city should take advantage of their 
opportunity to attend some church that has a good 
boy choir. Perhaps the best in the country is that 
of the Paulist Church in Chicago. 

Much space has been taken for this discussion of 
voice. Too much could not be given to it, for it is the 
most important problem in public-school music. Every 
one has a voice. He will need it constantly whether 
he sings or not, so the training will be useful to him 
every day of his life. 

Correct pronunciation, enunciation, articulation, 
and the support of these, breathing, are the mediums 
through which one must progress. Analyze your own 
speech. Any mistakes you make in speaking will be 
magnified from six to eight times in singing, singing 
being about that much slower than speech. 

Phrasing 

Intelligent singing depends upon correct phrasing. 
The phrases of the poem and of the music should 
agree. In case of disagreement the poetic phrase must 
govern. Carelessness in this matter is a common fault 
with many prominent singers. Disregard of punctua- 
tion marks often leads to ludicrous effects. In the 
famihar song, "Oh, Promise Me," the punctuation of 
the second verse does not agree with the music phrase. 
The majority of singers fail to notice this with the 
result that the singer makes the startling request to 
"Let me sit beside you in your eyes! '* Phrased prop- 



48 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

erly this line should be divided, thus: "Let me sit 
beside you, (breath) in your eyes seeing the vision of 
our paradise." This ignores the music phrase that 
ends on the word "eyes "; but if it is desired to make 
sense the verse must be sung as here indicated. "Lead, 
Kindly Light," is habitually phrased incorrectly. In 
this hymn disregard the music phrases and sing ac- 
cording to the punctuation. There is not a song of 
several verses in existence that does not need to be 
carefully studied in regard to phrasing. The school 
music-books abound in cases where it is necessary 
to use discrimination. Always phrase according to 
the punctuation. 

Rote Singing — Grade I 
Selecting the songs 
In using rote singing as a basis for sight reading 
a definite succession of songs should be planned. All 
initial efforts in singing should be through imitation; 
but the work should not be haphazard. Let the first 
songs of the primary grades be short, of easy, well- 
marked tonality, pure melody that does not need 
accompaniment, and above all let the poem be one 
that the children can understand and enjoy. The 
songs should be "for children," not " about children." 
Many composers fail in this. They grow old so 
quickly that they forget what they liked when they 
were children and substitute what they think children 
should like. A simple way to find what children like 



MUSIC 49 

is to try the songs on them. Make this trial without 
comment or effort to point out what should be liked. 
Teach a few songs. After a few days ask the children 
to name the songs they wish to sing. From these 
winnow out those that have objectionable features 
and retain the others. 

**The pigeons fly home when the sun goes down. 
As THE SUN IS APT TO DO, [subtle wit] 
Then they talk, and talk, though what they say 
Is nothing but 'Coo, Coo.' " 

A class of experienced teachers agreed, unani- 
mously, that this song was clever and would appeal 
to children. It was taught to an unusually bright 
first grade with other songs. No comment of any kind 
was made. The song was never asked for afterwards. 
Subtle wit is not the kind for children. The song — 
a trifle — "Little Jumping Joan," — 

"Here I stand, little jumping Joan, 
When nobody's with me, I'm always alone," — 

found instant favor. One of the smallest children ob- 
served, "Of course she was alone if no one was with 
her." This little song remained a favorite. 

The material in songs for children is so abundant 
that plenty of them may be found that children will 
like. At the end of the chapter will be found a list of 
books that are rich in such material, although it is not 
intended to imply that every song in each book is 
suitable. 



50 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Songs of the seasons should be sung in the seasons 
to which they belong. There are enough songs about 
fairies, brownies, and soldiers to last several years 
without repetitions. "Game songs" are valuable if 
the actions are timed with the music. The songs of 
Jessie L. Gaynor (Songs of the Child World), the Pro- 
gressive Music Course, the Hollis E. Dann Music 
Course, and Alys E. Bentley's comp)ositions are rich 
in such material. 

Songs embodying patriotic sentiments should be 
thoroughly taught. Even our National Anthem, 
"The Star-Spangled Banner," is possible if the proper 
tone quaUty is insisted upon. The writer was of the 
opinion that most of our patriotic songs were too long, 
but, since the entrance of our country into this World 
War, he has been forced to change his opinion. He 
has found that first-grade children in the first month 
of school insist on singing the longer songs. They 
do these songs with zest and ease. Not only has he 
found that the little ones learn them, but that they 
teach them to their parents. '* America," of course, 
will be sung. The "Marseillaise" in English may 
also be used effectively. Be sure to pitch all of these 
rather high. It is the low tones that are dangerous to 
the child voice. 

In considering rote songs examine them as to tonal 
ease. Those with scale progressions and easy skips 
along the fimdamental chord lines are the best. The 
latter progressions are easier at first than the for- 



MUSIC 51 

mer. The teaching of the scale is not decried, but 
untrained voices move through the skips of a chord 
with greater ease (Do, me, sol, do. Re, fa, la, etc.). The 
octave is the easiest interval to discern. Use songs 
that have plenty of these chord successions in the 
melody. Do this, not to try to teach these intervals, 
but as the best means of showing differences of pitch 
to monotones and of establishing key perceptions for 
all. 

Rote songs should be used also to improve tone 
quality and accuracy in pitch. In range keep the 
songs for the first grade within the limits of the treble 
("G") clef (staff). An occasional tone above or be- 
low will do no injury, but the general range should 
be with a preponderance of tones in the middle of this 
range. 

Showing the pupils 

A piano is a great help in teaching rote songs. An 
organ will do, but a piano is better. Either a grand 
or square is preferable to the modern upright. The 
low-built instrument enables the teacher to face the 
class. The player piano and talking machine can be 
used to great advantage by the teacher who is not 
a musician. Before resorting to the piano have the 
children learn the words. Then play the song using 
a decided marcato touch (well marked), so that the 
melody stands out from the accompaniment. When 
the children can hum the melody, let them put the 



52 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

words to it. In playing for the children at this stage 
use a staccato (short, detached tone) touch that will 
not cover up the voices of the singers. The melody 
and words being mastered, accompany the children 
in the very best style possible so that they may get 
the benefit of the complete composition. Teaching 
without a piano is a much slower and less accurate 
method. 

When teaching by voice, the teacher should sing 
for the children, not with them. He who sings with 
the children only covers up their mistakes and robs 
them of initiative. The teacher who sings for the 
class and then Hstens while the class repeats what he 
has sung hears any mistakes and is free to correct 
them immediately. The ability to anticipate a mis- 
take and assist with voice or instrument at just the 
right instant to prevent the mistake is an attribute 
of the successful teacher. This power of anticipation 
comes with experience. To acquire it is worth the 
most persistent effort on the part of the teacher. Only 
to prevent the children from making a mistake should 
the teacher sing with them, and then not more than 
two or three tones in succession. These tones to be 
sung in such a manner that the children do not real- 
ize that they are being helped. 

The right pitch for a song should be taken from 
some instrument of absolute pitch (piano, organ, 
pitch-pipe, or tuning fork). Do not guess at the pitch. 
The best musician will occasionally vary widely from 



MUSIC 53 

the pitch. After getting the absolute pitch sing the 
entire song through several times without letting the 
children even hum. Then sing the first phrase and 
have the children try. Take the other phrases in turn 
till all are learned, then combine them. Listen atten- 
tively when the children sing to detect errors in tone, 
interval, rhythm, or word. The pupils will sing what 
they have heard. If they make a mistake it will be 
because the teacher has made a mistake; she has 
shghted tone, interval, or rhythm. A mistake once 
fixed is difficult to correct. 

Rote songs incorrectly taught with poor tone qual- 
ity, inaccurate intervals, and slovenly rhythm will 
be very detrimental to the pupils' musical education. 
A song correctly, sweetly, precisely sung with proper 
diction, pure tone quality, and clearly marked rhythm 
will be of inestimable value to them. First, make a 
selection of good material; second, be sure the songs 
are sung in a "musicianly " way. If the teacher can- 
not sing, let her choose a child whose parents, older 
sisters, or brothers take interest enough to teach the 
song to the child. Use this child to teach the songs 
to other pupils. Any teacher will soon learn to rec- 
ognize when a song is correctly sung. A "talking 
machine" may be used if no other way is found; but 
a word of caution must here be interposed. Do not 
let the children try to imitate the tone quality of the 
adult heard in the record. Copy the sweetness, but 
not the "thickness '' and strength of the adult voice. 



54 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

In using the talking machine to teach a song the 
poem should first be learned. Then let the children 
listen to the reproduction from the machine. Next, 
sing very, very softly with the machine. Lastly, try 
the song unaccompanied. If the children sing softly 
enough, it gives the teacher an excellent opportunity 
to compare the melody from machine and voice and 
to detect errors on the part of the children. 

Do not give much time to one song. It is better to 
have several songs in the learning at the same time. 
Songs of from four to eight measures may safely be 
treated as one phrase for teaching purposes. Long 
songs should be the exception. When given they 
should be taught one phrase at a time, as suggested 
previously. Where there is a change of key involved 
between two consecutive phrases the two phrases 
should be taught as one. 

Tempo {rate of speed) 

The tempo (rate of speed) should be slow enough at 
first to allow each word to be heard distinctly, to be 
clearly enunciated and properly pronounced. Quicken 
the tempo gradually as the song is learned. Never 
drag the time. Slow singing and dragging are two 
distinct things. Some songs require a slow tempOy 
but no song should be dragged. 

Do not make the common mistake of setting march- 
ing songs at too slow a tempo. A slow tempo makes 
the children take too long a step. The regulation ca- 



MUSIC 55 

dence is one hundred and twenty steps per minute. 
Full step for adults is thirty inches. Graduate this 
step from twenty-eight inches in the upper grades to 
fifteen inches in the lower grades. Girls do not take 
the long step gracefully. For this reason the boys 
should accommodate themselves to a shorter step 
when marching with girls. Children of widely vary- 
ing heights cannot march together effectively. 

Expression 

Sentiment should not be exaggerated. If it is of the 
right kind and the tempo is right, the children will 
of their own accord sing with the proper expression. 
Songs that require much "interpretation" from the 
teacher are not the right sort for the children. 

When motions are to be used with the song, the 
song should be committed thoroughly to memory be- 
fore the motions are undertaken. All motions, ges- 
tures, marchings, and dancing should be in exact 
accord with the meter of the composition. 

The teacher's voice 

A man in teaching the lowest grades should use the 
falsetto (false, or "soprano" voice). Even this voice 
is too heavy for the children to imitate. A woman 
should use the lightest voice she can produce, avoid- 
ing, however, a thin, flat quality of tone. Do not copy 
the quality of the elocutionist who imitates a child 
singing. This results in a miserable quality, the very 



56 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

quality that is to be avoided. The elocutionist is al- 
ways parodying the child voice just to get a laugh. 
A contralto should find her "head voice." She has it 
and will be able to use it if her voice has been prop- 
erly trained. In case either a man or a woman cannot 
sing a song at the right pitch, let him or her sing for 
the children at a lower pitch; but on having the chil- 
dren sing, start them at the right pitch. This way, 
while not satisfactory, must be resorted to at times. 

Number of songs in Grade I 

The number of songs taught in the first year will 
be determined by the length of the songs taught and 
the ability of the teacher. Not less than two songs of 
good length should be taught in a month. If short 
songs are used, as are found in the Congdon Primers 
(excellent), from fifty to a hundred songs can be 
learned in the first year. 

Results of rote singing 

Rote songs are used to gain good tone quality, 
accurate pitch, well marked but flexible rhythm in 
singing, and at the same time to cultivate a sense for 
good music that leads to the enjoyment of it. The 
results desired are placed in order of importance. 
Appreciation of music, arousing a desire to sing or 
play, is only an aggravation if the voice and fingers 
are not first controlled. Most boys do not like to sing 
because they lack voice control. 



MUSIC 57 

Rote Singing 
In Grade II 

In the second grade rote singing occupies a smaller 
place than in the first grade. By the plan here sug- 
gested it is the sole means of teaching children to sing 
during the first year. There are modifications of this 
plan as shown on a later page, but the writer believes 
that nothing is gained by hurrying children into the 
study of written music. But in the second year rote 
singing should be used chiefly for enjoyment and pu- 
pils should begin to learn to read music. However, 
all that has been said concerning rote singing in 
the first grade appHes equally in the second grade, 
although songs of slightly greater length and wider 
range of voice may be used. 

During the first two weeks of school songs of the 
previous year are reviewed for the purpose of per- 
fecting them as the connecting step with note read- 
ing. After this rote songs should be used for the en- 
joyment they afford. The shortest song can be made 
of value if sung properly. A song that is not worth 
singing well is not worth singing at all. Books con- 
taining many of the rote songs should be placed in 
the hands of the pupils. Their learning ability being 
quickened they will be able to sing about the same 
number of songs in this grade as in the first, although 
they will spend less time upon them. 



58 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

In Grade III 

The only diflFerence in this grade will be in the char- 
acter and length of the songs. There will be less time 
for rote singing because attention must now be given to 
"reading music." 

In Grade IV 

In this grade rote singing should be incidental. 
From now on too much rote singing creates a lazy 
mental attitude. But care should be taken that "note 
songs" are as interesting as "rote songs," for, if this 
is not attended to, the note singing will suffer and lag. 

In Grade V 
A few rote songs may be used. As a rule, however, 
only those songs should be sung by rote that are not 
contained in the readers, but that the entire school 
should know; for example, songs that are to be sung 
in a general assembly of the school or community. 

In Grades VI, VII, VIII 
Rote songs will be used in these grades only when 
music is first being introduced in the schools and the 
children cannot read music. 

Reading Music 
All can learn to read music 
It is an old untruth that only those who are es- 
pecially endowed musically can learn to read music. 
Two requisites alone are necessary for the reading of 



MUSIC 59 

music — a sense of rhythm and a sense of tonality. 
The rhythmic sense may be aided through marching, 
gesturing, and dancing in time to music. The sense 
of tonahty comes through hearing music, instru- 
mental and vocal, and through trying to sing. Tonal- 
ity is the sense through which tones assume a definite 
relation to each other and to a common tone. This 
sense is best developed by rote singing. Either exer- 
cises or songs, or a combination of both, may be the 
medium. Do not try to sugar-coat your method. No 
deception is necessary to gain application of the mind 
if the subject is presented in an attractive, interest- 
ing, energetic fashion. 

The majority of voices being united through rote 
singing, and, in the case of monotones, through the 
use of certain exercises to place the voice, the first step 
in actual reading may be taken. It is useless to at- 
tempt the teaching of reading until this is accom- 
plished, because incorrect intervals will become fixed 
voice habits difficult to eradicate. After the "tuning" 
process is so far completed that the scale is being com- 
prehended as a whole through songs which have scale 
successions, teach the syllables: "Do, ti, la, sol, fa, 
mi, re, do." Do not apply the syllables until the suc- 
cession of tones is correctly known. The syllables 
will be of no assistance unless the pupils realize the 
proper relation of these syllables to one another and 
unless they are able to sing them in tune. 



60 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Syllables are important 

Results have proved the worth of syllables. They 
give a definite way of doing a certain thing. Do not 
be afraid to use the scale and to teach it. It is not 
an alphabet. It is a vocabulary to be learned and 
a musical yardstick by which intervals may be accu- 
rately measured. Teach the scale through any me- 
dium, but teach it. By knowing the scale is meant 
that, given any one member of a certain group of 
tones known as the scale, the other members imme- 
diately come into mind in their regular succession. 
For example, sound any pitch, and give it the name 
of a certain member of the scale, fa, for instance; in- 
stantly the whole series of tones of which fa is the 
fourth should come into mind. It is only when this 
relation is conceived that the scale is known. When 
a subconscious sense of this kind is gained, then to- 
nality is well developed. It is not necessary to teach 
songs that contain the tones of the scale in regular 
order at first. Many good supervisors do not pay 
any attention to this, but it is easier if they are learned 
in order. 

From rote to note singing — Song Method 

There are practically but two methods of making 
the transfer from rote to note singing. The most 
popular one (as it gives the teacher the greatest op- 
portunity to display his teaching ability) is the so- 



MUSIC 61 

called "song method." A song, having been learned 
by rote both by words and syllables, is placed on the 
board or displayed on a chart. The teacher then sings 
the words and points to the notes. Next, he points 
to the notes as the children sing the words. Third, 
the teacher points to the notes and sings the syllable 
names. Finally, the children sing the syllables as the 
teacher points to the notes. After several songs have 
been sung in this way books containing the songs just 
sung from the board are placed in the hands of the 
children. (1) The teacher shows the children how to 
point to the notes in the book. (2) He sings the words 
as the children point to the notes. (3) The children 
point to the notes and sing the words. (4) The syllable 
names are sung by the teacher, the children pointing 
to the notes. (5) The class points to the notes and 
sings the syllable names. Another of the old songs is 
now selected and sung in the same way. This second 
song should be in a different key from the first. Fi- 
nally, after having sung a couple of dozen songs in this 
way, a new song is selected and the children point to 
the notes and try to sing the syllable names at once. 
This is the more complicated way of transferring 
from rote to note singing. 

Ffmri rote to note singing — Direct Method 

The simpler and more direct way is to teach the 
scale progression through song. When the song is 
accurately sung and the syllables are known, show 



62 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

the representation of the scale on board or chart and 
let the children sing the syllable names as the teacher 
points to the notes. From this "whole" take shorter 
and more irregular successions, varying the keys. 
Use a few song tunes from chart or board and then 
take up the books. This is a formal drill, but should 
not be carried on in a formidable manner. Make such 
exercises snappy and of short duration. The pointing 
should be done with a gliding motion of the pointer, 
but at the same time there must be firmness and de- 
cision to it. Later, when meter is taken up, the pointer 
may be used more as a beat indicator, tapping gently 
under the note that is to come on the regular division 
or pulse of the measure. The teacher should not sing 
with the children, except occasionally to give the 
pitch when he feels the pupils are about to make a 
mistake. Use an instrument to give the starting pitch. 
Always test the pitch at the close to see if the pitch 
has been adhered to. Tonally this is the beginning 
of reading. 

The teaching of rhythm is more complicated. Not 
that there is really any complexity in rhythm itself, 
but that there is much mind laziness and carelessness 
in the world. The diflficulty is to get each one in a 
class to concentrate his mind. When the rhythm 
sounds easy, the correct interpretation has been given. 
As long as it is cumbrous it is wrong. Music contain- 
ing freakish combinations of rhythm is not fit for the 
schoolroom. 



MUSIC 63 

Music Course — Grade I 

Discovering and arranging the voices 

On the first day of school begin in a systematic 
way to sort the voices. Place the monotones in the 
front of the room. A quick way to make a general 
classification is to somid a tone of rather high pitch, 
"C " (third space), or better, "D " or "E," just above 
it. Imitate a locomotive giving short, sharp blasts. 
Have the children try to imitate. When all are sound- 
ing or trying to sound the pitch tell them to keep 
it up. (No trouble will be encountered in getting this 
exercise started — there may be some in getting it 
stopped.) Pass quickly from one child to another, 
leaning over so that the mouth of each child comes 
near your ear. Do not stop at all where the right 
pitch is being given. Where a wrong pitch is given 
pause long enough to make an effort to correct the 
fault. Make a record of the children at whose desks 
you pause. Later all of these children will be seated 
across the front of the room, the worst cases being in 
the very front seats. A child responds with the right 
pitch so much more readily if the tone is sounded by 
another child. Have a child who can sing stand be- 
fore one who cannot. Direct the poor singer to watch 
the mouth of the singer in front of him. The pitch- 
giver then sings the tone desired and the other tries 
to imitate. The child with the faulty voice must watch 
the lips of the singer. If this is done an immediate 



64 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

cure of the monotone is generally the result. Children 
who do not respond to this treatment will have to 
have special help from day to day. (See suggestions 
in previous pages.) 

Second step 

After making a hurried assortment and rearrang- 
ing the seating scheme, teach a song. Select the songs 
from the very beginning to give a sense of tone rela- 
tion. Short songs of only one or two measures do not 
do this satisfactorily. Use songs at least eight meas- 
ures in length if in two-four meter, or four measures 
in length if in four-four meter. 

Introducing syllables and the staff 

A few seconds each day should be given to each 
child who has trouble with pitch. When all, or prac- 
tically all, the voices are in tune, i.e., after from six 
to eight weeks, introduce the syllable names in either 
of the two ways previously mentioned. This intro- 
duction of the syllable names should come so natu- 
rally that the pupils scarcely notice it. Neither teacher 
nor child should be able to tell, exactly, at the end 
of the year just when the syllables were first used. 
The beginning of this reading work may come in two 
or three months or be as much delayed as the eighth 
or ninth month. As soon as the class can sing simple 
tone passages from the hand signs or oral dictation, 
show the notes on the staff. The initial efforts from 



MUSIC 



65 



the staff should be from passages in which no meter 
or rhythm is shown. These elements may be sup- 
plied by the pointing of the instructor: — 



^ 



^s 



"s^^ 



Scale passages and chord intervals being tolerably 
well sung, introduce passages in very simple two- 
part measure: — 



,8,^sr i fr i f--' i .i,J i .i i ,fiJJ i J 



Teaching meter and rhythm 

These steps carefully and accurately accomplished, 
little trouble will be met in following them with more 
difficult exercises. In the first grade no complex or 
troublesome rhythm should occur. Metrical exer- 
cises, not rhythmical ones, will suffice: — 



Thts:- 
A L 










not 

r\ 1 




t/ii 


s:- 








■ >« 












'i , M" 








> 






■ y Vi ^ 












JW^^ 












<ji 


f(^V <\ 












f(\y^ A. 




Id 


-W^ 


7? 


— 1 


^^ 


"P * J. 










^. 


V r 4: _ 


«t 


J * 










'^ 


J * 










m 





With the introduction of meter the children should 
be taught to tap the meter very lightly on their desks. 
Let this be done with a free-arm movement with a 
good swing to it. The tapping of the meter is of vital 
importance. It should be taught before the notation 
of an exercise is shown. That is, in dictation all 
metrical exercises should be tapped by the children 



66 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

till it is shown by the swing of the arm that they are 
actually feeling the rhythm of the meter. Do not 
confuse meter and rhythm. Rhythm is a regular, or 
irregular, division of the regular recurring accents, 
or pulses, indicated by a meter signature. Meter is a 
grouping of regular pulse into divisions called meas- 
ures. Rhythm should never be tapped; for exam- 
ple (" A " indicates tap) : — 

Right. Wrong. ^ 



I 



^ 



WM 



K 



-d-it^-^ 



A AA AA A A A A A A A 

These illustrations are merely suggestions. Many 
exercises of the same type are to be found in all music 
readers. 

Individual singing 

Individual singing should begin with the first day 
in school and be kept up till graduation. Concerted 
recitations have long since been abolished in other 
subjects and they should no longer be in absolute con- 
trol of music. Music to be sure demands concerted 
efforts, but the individual effort must not be over- 
looked. So far as the writer knows the best plan de- 
vised for individual singing is that advocated by T. P. 
Giddings in his little book. School Music Teaching. 
Liberty is taken to quote from his article: — 

Let the child in the rear seat and the one next in front 
in the same row stand. The first child sings a song or stanza. 
When he has finished, the next one takes it up instantly 



MUSIC 67 

without being told. As the first one finishes, the third one 
stands and is ready to sing when the second has finished. 
Having two standing at once saves the time it takes each 
one to stand and sit. They might, of course, remain seated, 
but they would lose a great deal of the good of the individual 
recitation. 

This plan is effective and saves time. It can be 
used in note reading quite as readily as in rote sing- 
ing. The passage read by each child is necessarily 
brief. 

Standards of attainment for Grade I 

The maximum demand on first-grade children is 
found in the Harmonic Music Course. This course 
requires the children to read music of equal grade of 
difficulty with "Old Hundred." This has been found 
to be absolutely practicable, successful, and not in- 
jurious to the child. 

The minimum is where rote songs, and rote songs 
only, sung for the pleasure of singing monopolizes 
the entire music time. This is a great waste of time. 
There is no variety to such a course. The constant 
song singing cloys on the minds of the children. The 
longer note reading is put off the greater the number 
of obstacles that accumulate in its path. It must 
come and it should come early in the child's life. 

In the first grade at least two thirds of the music 
period should be devoted to singing songs. But a 
narrow foothold, or base, in note reading is needed. 
This base is worth the effort as it greatly simplifies 
the requirements of the second year. 



68 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

No detailed outline for the first grade is necessary 
in this article. All music readers have their own out- 
lines. There are good points in most of them. Glean 
from them the things that will help you. The points 
common to all courses are the ones to be relied upon. 
Of radical features beware. The desideratum in the 
music period is singing. Swinging circles, clapping 
hands, marking dashes on the board, slamming doors, 
dropping pencils, and numerous other devices for 
quickening perception of sounds and rhythms are 
but consumers of time and have no appreciable value 
in music. 

The writing or copying of notes in the first grade 
does but little good. Do a very, very small amount 
of it if you must, but only when the time can be 
spared from some other period than that devoted to 
music. 

Analyzing songs, reducing them to phrases, pick- 
ing out "motives," are fine to display the ability of 
the teacher. The results achieved will not justify the 
time expenditure. 

Children learn to walk by trying to walk; to talk 
by trying to talk. Why not let them learn to sing by 
trying to sing; to read music by trying to read it? 

Summary : — 

Plan No. 1. Rote songs (100) for nine months. 
Plan No. 2. Rote songs (80) for eight months. 

Transition to reading. 
Plan No. 3. Rote songs until voices are united (about 
one month). 



MUSIC 69 

Transition to reading. 

From then on two thirds of time" to rote 

singing. 
Balance of time to note reading and other 

elements. 

Music Course — Grade II 
Beginning the year 

As in Grade I seat the poorest singers in the front 
seats. If some monotones have passed in from the 
first grade or have entered from other schools, place 
these children in the foremost seats in each section. 

For the benefit of newcomers in the grade and to 
freshen the memories of the other pupils spend about 
two weeks in song singing. Pay attention to tone 
quality and purity of intonation. When these req- 
uisites have been gained introduce note reading as 
is outlined for the first grade. After this has been 
begun a portion of the period each day should be de- 
voted to note reading. 

The use of music textbooks 

The new feature to the children will be the plac- 
ing in their hands of the music textbooks containing 
songs and exercises to be sung by note. Do not be 
afraid of exercises. They are as essential in music as 
are the phonetic drills in the teaching of the reading 
of English. Good exercises will do more toward cul- 
tivating a taste for music than songs. The highest 
forms in music are not vocal but instrumental. Peo- 



70 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

pie who like vocal music exclusively generally form 
their opinion of the song through the poem. Of the 
music they think but little. Children are only " small 
people." If they prefer songs and can see no beauty 
in a good succession of tones, they are not having cul- 
tivated in them a taste for music. No less a person- 
age than Richard Wagner has remarked concerning 
the effect of a great Parisian orchestra: "The orches- 
tra had learned to look for Beethoven's melody in 
every bar — and the orchestra sang that melody. This 
was the secret of their success." Music is music wher- 
ever found, either in a great orchestra or in a school- 
room. Search out the melody in each exercise and 
the dryness of the music will disappear. It is surpris- 
ing how much melody can be found in a simple exer- 
cise. 

When the book is placed in the hands of the chil- 
dren the tapping of the meter on the desk will be 
transferred to a pointing of the meter in the books. 
This j)ointing should be done noiselessly, but with a 
free movement of the hand and forearm. Success will 
depend largely upon the exactness of this pointing. 
A child to point to the right part of the measure must 
look at the right part of it. He may guess correctly 
once in a while, but cannot do it all the time. This 
simplifies matters for the teacher. At a glance he can 
tell where the attention of each is by watching the 
hands in a broad, wide-seeing glance. If a child is 
pointing to the right beat, or measure division, he is 



MUSIC 



71 



pretty sure to be seeing and singing the right note. 
A very important fact to be remembered is that the 
pupil should point "meter," not notes or rhythm. 
Suppose a song is in two-part measure and there are 
four notes in the measure: he should point but timce 
for that measure, not four times. (Points indicated 
by" A ." Notice that sometimes the point will come 
on rest or dot.) 



A ^ AAAAAA AA iwi 



A A. A A A A 

Measures which contain a haK note must have two 
points for the haK notes, if the beat equals a quarter 
note. In this case the hand should not remain down 
for two counts. In all meters as many points will be 
given as there are divisions indicated by the meter 
signature. 

The problem in rhythm in the second grade has no 
perplexing combinations. Generally no notes are used 
except those receiving one or more beats (multiple 
beat notes). Notes representing fractions of beats are 
not used. 

The matter of pointing seems so trivial that many 
cannot be persuaded of its value. Yet it is the great- 
est help that can be devised in teaching these first steps 
in meter and rhythm. 

Little or no theory should be taught in this grade. 
Call all signs and symbols by their right names. 



72 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Point them out to the children. Occasionally let them 
try to draw the " G " clef and the several kinds of notes 
occurring in the songs and exercises they sing. Do all 
written work that is done on the blackboard. ' C. H. 
Congdon (Chicago) has published some printed staves 
on which movable disks may be used in this grade 
in connection with dictation prescribed in some 
courses. 

A small amoimt of "oral dictation" may be given. 
This consists of singing to a neutral syllable (loo, la), 
or playing a very simple series of tones. The children, 
first collectively and afterwards individually, sing the 
passage back to the teacher responding with the sylla- 
ble names. The Congdon staves, mentioned in the 
foregoing paragraph, may then be used, the children 
placing the disks on the degrees representing the 
pitches sung. 

Standards of attainment for Grade II 

Rote singing should still occupy at least half the 
period, the songs being sung almost entirely for the 
pleasure they may give. Care should be taken that 
there is not too great contrast between the note and 
rote songs. 

The material for this grade consists of rote songs, 
note songs, exercises in note reading, and dictation. 
The problem in rhythm being the beat note and multi- 
ple-beat note. (Each note a "beat" note. Multiple- 
beat note.) 



MUSIC 73 



■l J . I| . l.|2 .l.l l |.l . r| |l J | |; J .]| 

In meter; 2/4, 2/2, 3/4, 4/4, 6/4, 6/8 are the meas- 
ures used. All keys may be used, as a large key signa- 
ture (five or six flats or sharps) presents no difficulty 
to any one who reads by the "movable do " system. 



Music Course — Grade III 

Beginning the year 

By the time the children reach the third grade 
through the first and second there should be no trouble 
from monotones and "out of tunes." A few may not 
have been cured or new pupils with no music training 
may have started from other schools. Seat them as 
directed in the foregoing and continue the treatment 
begun in the lower grades. Try them out individually 
for a few seconds every day. Spend the first two weeks 
in review, both in reading and rote work. Continue 
to give at least half of the period to rote singing, using 
old and new songs. The remainder of the time should 
be allotted to reading songs, exercises, giving oral and 
written dictation and type rhythm drills. 

Rhythm drills 

This part of the work is not drudgery. It can be 
made very interesting if given with enthusiasm and 
vigor. Hollis E. Dann (Cornell University, Ithaca, 
New York) has worked out a very complete course in 



74 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

dictation, both oral and written. His type forms in 
rhythm are also excellent. 

The Progressive Music Course {Teacher's Manual) 
has treated this type-form phase of the work quite 
exhaustively. But little can be done at one time in 
this branch of music; yet, if done well, the results will 
be astonishingly satisfactory. The technical side of 
music should not be neglected. Piano teachers have 
recognized this for years. Only those who do stress 
this part of the teaching of music get lasting results. 
Technical development is just as necessary in music as 
in mathematics. There is much greater resemblance 
in the teaching of mathematics and music than there 
is between the teaching of language and music. 

The new feature in rhythm will be the evenly di- 
vided beat; two, three, or four notes of equal lengths 
being sung to one point. Children have little or no 
diflSculty with these rhythms. It is really a cause for 
speculation why the two-note division is not used in 
the second grade. 

Optional work 

Two-part singing (first and second soprano) may be 
attempted in the latter part of the year. It is not 
at all important, however, and can just as well be 
omitted. "Rounds" are easy to sing, but have so little 
musical value that they too may be left out. 

Folk-dancing may and should be correlated with 
music. Alys E. Bentley has suggested and outlined 



MUSIC 75 

many little dances in connection with singing. The 
Progressive Music Series and the Hollis E. Dann Course 
are both rich in suggestion and material, and will be 
of inestimable value to the teacher. The only danger 
lies in these auxiliaries being carried to the extreme 
of monopolizing the music period, everything else 
being crowded out. 

Music Course — Grade IV 
New work 

A beginning is made in the fourth grade of teaching 
the theory of music. This should be done as an aid to 
reading and interpreting music. Teach nothing till 
it is to be used. Meter, words, etc., should be ex- 
plained and called for only when they are needed in 
interpretation. Constant application of their mean- 
ing soon makes them understood. Once understood 
they will never be forgotten. Written lessons should 
not exceed one minute a day — not over five minutes 
a week. Written work is a good check to find what 
each child knows. This is its strongest recommenda- 
tion. Do not spend time hunting for " budding genius ." 
It will crop out of its own accord. It cannot be held 
down. 

The new problem in rhythm is the unevenly divided 
beat. This "bugaboo" is not to be feared if it is 
treated in a common-sense manner and if little drills 
on it are given from time to time. In the case of 



76 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

one beat being unequally divided — for example, a 
dotted eighth followed by a sixteenth — n I P^ \ 
no trouble whatsoever will be encountered. \4: * •* ^ / 
Singers are more prone to sing all equally divided 
single beats Fl more or less unevenly. One ** show- 
ing how " V /is worth more in teaching this 
than a thousand explanations. The beat and a half 
note (f * in 2/4 meter and others of a similar kind) 
has been presented by teachers in many different 
ways. The most effective way, as well as the easiest, 
is to let the children point for the note and also for 
the dot, shpping the fractional beat note in be- 
tween the dot and the next beat. (The arrow indi- 
cates the beat or point.) || || |j J| 
The vowel of the syllable ^0 *f f •(* f 'f p 
or word may be reiterated • L» J U I U 1 
at first. When the effect of the rhythm or word is proved 
to be sensed, sustain the vowel without reiteration. 
The foregoing should be sung: — 
This will give the effect of the 2 J Pi J . J] J I 
short note belonging to the fol-'* / ' 

lowmglong note, which is correct. 

Another new element, or one that is but lightly 
touched upon in the third grade, is the subject of 
chromatic tones. The old idea that "accidentals" 
were danger signals has long been relegated to the 
rubbish-heap. Chromatics (accidentals) may be elim- 
inated by adding to or subtracting from the key signa- 
ture the sharps or flats used as accidentals in the com- 



MUSIC 77 

position. (Naturals are sometimes "flats" in effect, 
sometimes "sharps." They always subtract either 
sharp or flat.) A thorough understanding of this re- 
quires considerable study for one who has not been 
accustomed to the "movable do " system. The sub- 
ject is so gradually, simply, and explicitly treated 
in several music courses that to go into it here is not 
necessary. The Harmonic Music Course is probably 
the most thorough of all in developing this ability. By 
studying the Chart Manual of this course a mastery 
of the whole plan may be gained. 

Attainment in Grade IV 

Fourth-grade results should be a decided pleasure, 
musically, to the teacher. The voices should be beauti- 
ful in quality and perfect in intonation. Two-part songs 
and exercises may be introduced safely in the early 
part of the year. Be careful that the range of the lower 
part does not go far below the staff. Use nothing that 
requires sustained tone below middle "C" (first Une 
below treble staff). An occasional "B " or "B flat" 
will not be injurious. The upper part should not 
go above the fifth line of the staff. 

Music Coukse — Grade V 

Nothing absolutely new is left for the fifth grade. 
The minor scale is often advanced for particular study. 
This mode has been used in songs and exercises so 
often in the preceding grades that it is already familiar. 



78 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

The tone combinations are familiar to the ear. Even 
the step of the augmented second (interval of one 
whole and one half step represented by adjacent staff 
degrees, as "F " to "G sharp ") is only a minor third 
as expressed by "F " to "a flat in the key of E flat." 
If the minor scale is required as a specified study, teach 
it first by rote just as you did the major key. Two- 
or three-voiced (part) songs should be sung in abun- 
dance. Tone quality should be particularly empha- 
sized. As a usual thing no changed voices yet present 
themselves and the unchanged voices are in their prime. 

Written lessons of about the same length as in the 
fourth grade should be given. Written and oral dic- 
tation should be done very rapidly and should take 
but very little time. 

Individual singing must be persisted in. Follow the 
same plan of standing and sitting as in the previous 
grades. In duet and trio numbers four or six, as the 
case demands, will be standing at one time. Thus no 
time will be lost in having the children rise and sit. 
Also each child will be heard two or three times as often 
as where solo singing is done. Self-consciousness, not 
having developed to any extent as yet, will not hinder 
even a fifth-grade pupil from responding readily in this 
work. In case the class is a beginning one, exercises 
and songs should be easy and all the steps outlined 
for first-grade children should be taken. The only 
difference is that the songs used should be suitable 
for fifth-grade children. 



MUSIC 79 

Music Course — Grade VI 

There is much beautiful music for female voices 
(unchanged voices) that is available for use in the sixth 
grade. It is an ideal situation when the pupils of this 
grade are so well trained in reading music that the 
usual music readers can be discarded in favor of some 
of these larger compositions. Then the regular text- 
book will be used only enough to insure a regular se- 
quence of music ideas, theory, etc. All the minutiae 
of the technic of reading should have been mastered 
before this grade is reached. 

Material 

If possible have a different set of textbooks in each 
sixth-grade room so that by an interchange of books 
a larger variety of material may be available. By all 
means secure several cantatas for use during the year, 
such as "The Crowning of the Gypsy Queen," by 
Surdo; "Snow- White," by Frederic Root (bass parts 
written but not absolutely necessary); "Feast of the 
Little Lanterns," by Bliss; "Pan on a Summer Day," 
by Bhss; "Three Springs," by Bhss; " CindereUa," by 
Abt; "King Rene's Daughter," by Smart (rather diffi- 
cult); and "The Lady of Shalott," by Bendell. It is 
not meant that all of these should be used in one year. 
Select the one that would be best adapted to the abil- 
ity of the children. Any music publishing house can 
furnish these. 



80 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Where changed voices are present 

Where some of the boys* voices have changed, the 
results cannot be entirely satisfactory, but this should 
not hold the others back. Music is in the schools 
for educational purposes, not for exhibition. "Snow- 
White*' would be entirely satisfactory even under 
these conditions. 

Importance of tone quality 

Never for an instant let up on tone quality. There 
must be no striving for "big** tones. Pure, sweet, 
round voice is what is wanted. Be satisfied with 
nothing inferior. 

Music Course — Grades VII and VIII 

Reading ability should be at its height in these 
grades. Trouble from the changed voice among the 
boys will not be serious if the voices have been well 
used up to this time. The basses have fairly good 
control in limited range. Select music that has a bass 
part, simple in rhythm and interval, in the range of 
the lowest voices. Unison songs are not effective on 
account of the few tones possessed by these adolescent 
voices. More boys lose interest at this time than at 
any other if material is not selected that they can sing. 

Girls, whose voices are also in this transition state, 
should be shifted from day to day to the part that is of 
easiest range for them. Be particular in this, for the 



MUSIC 81 

change, although not so perceptible, is more danger- 
ous than with the boys. 

The teacher should study voice 

The teacher should make a study of the adolescent 
voice whether he teaches music or not. There is no 
subject more important, more vital than this. The 
voice as an index of physical development is a great 
help to him who understands its production. It is also 
an index to the habits that boys and girls are forming. 
A strident quality or peculiar hardness and lack of 
resonance is a sure indication of pernicious habits. 
There are no signs or symptoms of this period more re- 
liable than the condition of the voice and eye. Learn 
to read both. 

Four-part singing 

Four-part singing is not only desirable, but neces- 
sary. Low alto voices can be substituted for tenors, 
if tenors are lacking. The tenor part will be found 
the best for boys just before the break occurs in the 
voice, and occasionally just before the change. 

Harmony and appreciation 

The introduction of the study of harmony in any 
form at this time is questionable. Most of the children 
will never need it. If they understand the theory of 
music through the use of the signs and symbols, that 
is sufficient. 



82 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Appreciation of music, as a course of study, is also 
out of place in the seventh and eighth grades. Such 
courses may be introduced at special times when there 
is going to be an opportunity to hear some good orches- 
tra, pianist, or other artist. At such a time explana- 
tions of the pieces to be heard will make the concert 
more interesting. But to take any time away from 
the regular period is not well. There is seldom time 
enough allotted to music to do what is already required. 

Band and orchestra organizations are discussed in 
another part of this chapter. 



Combination Grades 
Sight-reading 

Considerable space has been taken to indicate the 
work of the school, grade by grade. To teach success- 
fully in rooms where there are classes of different years 
the teacher should know what should be covered in 
each grade when it is taught alone. From this graded 
course one that embraces the necessary things, the 
chief steps, may be compiled, eliminating from the 
assignments in the lower grades those parts that will 
of necessity be often repeated throughout the years 
of school life. 

The most satisfactory combinations for sight-read- 
ing are the same as those given for rote singing. The 
combinations of grades that bring together changed 
and unchanged voices are always undesirable, as is 



MUSIC 83 

also a combination of grades three and four, because 
the lower of these grades does not study the theory of 
music, while the upper one does. 

A combination of the first two grades, rather than 
being detrimental, is a help. All the steps prescribed 
for the first grade must be gone through with, but more 
hurriedly than where the grade is by itself. Mono- 
tones will cause but little trouble, the majority of 
voices being in tune and having strength enough to 
penetrate the consciousness of the deficients. Each 
step of progress in the second grade need not be so 
thoroughly accomplished as where the grades are 
separate. As the first-grade children will necessarily 
do all the fundamentals twice and the second-grade 
pupils will go on to the third grade tolerably well pre- 
pared, aim to complete the upper-grade requirements, 
giving the greater amount of time to the upper grade. 
Make your plan so that all the steps of development 
will be covered each year. Vary the material, if pos- 
sible, by using one textbook one year and another 
the next. By alternating the two books the same fun- 
damentals will be passed over twice without repeating 
the exercises or songs. 

Follow this same plan with all combinations. 
Classes embracing four grades are less desirable, but 
can give very satisfactory results if they are taught 
according to this plan. The same textbook should 
not be used two years in succession if it is possible to 
avoid it. 



84 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

The Ungraded One-Room Rural School 

Eight grades in one room, taught by one teacher, 
is the situation met with in many rural schools. All 
that has been mentioned above as to advantages and 
disadvantages of combination grades holds good in 
these conditions. The problem for the teacher is a 
complicated one, but it has been met successfully by 
hundreds of teachers. Country children are better 
matured, more responsive, and more willing to help 
each other than are city children. These are the factors 
in the problem that make possible good results in 
rural schools. There are no books published, so far 
as the writer has been able to discover, that are written 
especially for such schools. 

To meet these conditions select a book that contains 
many, many songs of all types. One that is particu- 
larly rich in material is the School Song Book, pub- 
lished by C. C. Birchard & Company, Boston, Massa- 
chusetts. It was not intended for rural schools, but 
its variety of songs is so great that suitable material 
for any occasion can be found in it. The only supple- 
menting it will need will be in songs for little children. 

Sight-reading can best be carried on, under these 
conditions, from chart or board. But little reading 
need be done in a year, particularly the first year. 
The charts of the Harmonic Music Course (American 
Book Company) and the old charts to the New Educa- 
tional Music Course (Ginn & Company) furnish all the 



MUSIC 85 

material that could be wished for. These are possible, 
fiDancially, as the cost of the reduced chart manual of 
either is not over fifty cents. 

Reverse the plan for combination grades (at first) 
for doing sight-reading. It is next to impossible to do 
much reading the first or introductory year with the 
older children. Place most of the effort in getting 
the youngest pupils started right. This effort should 
not be apparent to the older ones. Have the whole 
school do thoroughly the chart intended for the first 
grade. The Harmonic Music CoursCy "Chart A,'* is 
especially suited to this, as it has no words and com- 
mands the respect of any person who is beginning 
in music. 

The child in the country is Hkely to be in the same 
school for a number of years. He will, of necessity, go 
over the same steps a great number of times. By the 
time he has gone through all the grades in the room, 
he should be more expert in reading than a child who 
is in a different room, under a new teacher, each suc- 
cessive year. A music course carried out systemati- 
cally in such a school is ideal in its possibilities. 

A change of sight-reading material should be made 
each year. If this is not done the reading will not be 
reading, but rote. Two sets of charts will be sufficient 
to effect the desired variation in material. Alternate 
them from year to year. 

In a few years the condition will reverse itself, that 
is, about the time the original first-grade pupils reach 



86 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

the fourth or fifth grade. Then the plan of stressing 
the upper-grade requirements in reading can be put 
into effect. 

To show the pupils the advantage of interval and 
rhythmic study always preface the teaching of a new 
song by a study from the chart of any difficulties that 
are to occur in the song. Supposed difficulties are 
presented in such a simple way in the Harmonic Music 
Charts, that, when gone over once or twice as directed, 
all complexities vanish. After singing the song (or 
exercise) in the book call attention to the way the 
chart bridged over what would have been a difficult 
spot. It will be well to let the children frequently 
encounter passages that they, at first sight, cannot 
sing. Then lay aside the book and turn to the chart 
or board and work out by simplified steps the interval 
or rhythm that has "stumped" the class. When the 
class stumbles, drop the song at once; otherwise the 
children will become afraid of that particular place 
and will always hesitate on reaching it. Overcome 
the difficulty by board or chart work and then come 
back to the book. Do not tell the children why you 
do this. They will eventually see for themselves. 
It is better, however, for the teacher to study his les- 
son enough in advance to know where the trouble- 
some places are, in order to prepare the class by board 
or chart simplifications. In this way he will save 
them from making mistakes. 

The first efforts at reading from the books may be 



MUSIC 87 

accompanied by an instrument, if there is one at hand. 
After the children have learned to read fairly well, let 
them attempt the reading of new songs before hearing 
the instrument or singing the song for them. Teach 
independence as much as possible. Help the children 
only when you wish to prevent mistakes. 

Individual singing may be done through duets, 
trios, quartets, etc. Encourage the pupils to attempt 
these part songs with one voice on a part. Help them 
outside of school hours and then use the songs as a 
special feature in the music period. One or two groups 
of this kind will stimulate the whole school. Individual 
effort will then come of itseK without begging, coax- 
ing, or threatening. 

A typical example 

Mrs. Marie Turner Harvey in her rural demonstra- 
tion school, the Porter School, near Kirks ville, Mis- 
souri, has secured some excellent results in music. A 
good, dry, clean basement that had been put under 
the building was utilized in various ways. It made an 
extra classroom for small groups of children. While 
the teacher was hearing a recitation in the main room, 
one of the older girls would take the younger chil- 
dren downstairs and teach them music suitable to their 
ages. This saved much time for the upper grades, it 
was a source of delight to the little ones, and it gave 
valuable training to some of the more mature pupils. 

The school also had a male chorus. This was really 



88 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

a community affair. It met twice a month under a 
special director who volunteered his services. Fathers 
and sons alike were in this chorus. The old familiar 
songs were first used. Gradually more difficult num- 
bers were introduced until the chorus was singing 
from standard works of the best composers. The inter- 
est of the fathers had an excellent effect on the boys 
in the school. The boys wanted to be with the older 
men. It was an incentive to them. The influence was 
retroactive on the men. They did not wish to be sur- 
passed by the boys, so all sang with greater enthusiasm. 

With the assistance of a band-master, who also 
volunteered and donated his services, a band was 
organized. The band met twice a month, alternating 
with the chorus. The band grew proficient rapidly. 
It has since been recognized by the United States 
Government in the substantial form of a complete 
set of band instruments. 

A teacher was engaged to make regular visits on 
certain days to give individual lessons on the piano. 
The schoolroom and school piano were placed at her 
disposal. She had a large class that included mothers 
and grandmothers. The pupils' recital at the end of 
the year was one of the most remarkable the writer 
ever heard. To see the effort of many of those aged, 
gnarled hands to finger the keys was extremely touch- 
ing. The patience, the perseverance of those older 
people spoke volumes for their love of music. 

All of this was done, at first, with the opposition of 



MUSIC 89 

almost exactly one half of the voting strength of the 
community. But merit won, and now the boys and 
girls of the Porter School District are getting all the 
advantages possessed by city children, and more. 

What Mrs. Harvey has done others can do, if they 
possess ability, pluck, tact, and energy. 

Use the best music 
Do not think that inferior music will do for country 
people. It may be necessary to start with music of a 
rather simple class, but the response to good music is 
quicker than in the city. The phonograph can be a 
wonderful assistant. Many farmers own fine instru- 
ments. They only need to be led to buy good records. 
The very fact that they are far removed from the cen- 
ters where great musical productions may be heard 
makes them appreciate all the more keenly what is 
brought to them. Choruses from the standard light, 
grand, and comic operas and oratorios are the ones 
to use. These compositions have an element in them 
that is common to all human nature. If this were not 
true they could not have Hved. The music written 
for school purposes is, as a rule, shoddy. Drop all of 
it. Begin with folk-songs and lead up to the heavier 
works. Talk but Httle. Do not "gush'* at all over 
the supernatural, ethereal attributes of music. Good 
music needs no explaining, other than how it occurs 
in opera or oratorio. Make even these statements 
very brief. 



90 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 



Music Course in Rural Schools 

Seating plan: The same as that given for city schools. 

Rote singing: Unite and tune the voices through rote songs. 
Folk-songs are always the best for this purpose. At first 
enlist the aid of the older pupils in teaching the younger ones. 

Reading music: Use for the first lessons the reading exer- 
cises intended for the first grade. As there are no words 
the older pupils will not realize that they are doing first- 
grade work. 

Teach the syllable names through either song or exercise. 

Try exercises by note from the staff, using either chart 
or board. 

Attempt easy, unknown songs from the book with an 
accompanying instrument if possible. 

Teach all difficult passages in new songs from board or 
chart. 

Sing new songs by syllables. 

Increase difficulty of songs from day to day. 

After several years set the standards from what the upper- 
grade pupils should do. Bring the younger ones along with 
the older ones by rote, but have as many songs for the little 
folks as time will permit. 

See the section ** Combination Grades." 



Music Appreciation 

Music appreciation is important if too much is not 
made of it. Do not try to do more than one period 
per week in this. Once a month would be better. 
The Matthews book (How to Understand Music, 
2 vols.) is an excellent basis for this study. As this 
writer presents it, it amounts to a study of "Form," 
and is very helpful. The phonograph companies have 
also published some very good books for this work. 



MUSIC 91 

but to accomplish all they give would take too much 
time from the regular course in music. 

Children should be encouraged to attend good con- 
certs. In a small city and in the country such oppor- 
tunities are rare. When they are to occur the teacher 
should secure the player and phonograph records of 
the selections that are on the program, and play 
and explain them. Point out construction as to form, 
motive, etc. Tell the story of the opera from which 
an aria is taken. Give the setting of the aria in the 
opera. This will be a real aid in appreciation of 
music. 

Musical biographies are also quite interesting. 
Almost all of the lives of the great composers bear a 
charm for little folks, for most of the composers rose 
from low rank in life by hard work. When telling the 
stories to the children (or adults) do not paint the 
characters other than they were. Remember they 
were mortals with all the failings and shortcomings 
of mortals. In truth many had more failings than 
virtues, but only touch this point to show how, in 
spite of these shortcomings, they achieved greatness. 
Do not be too quick to condemn one of them either, 
because in their day an entirely different set of social 
standards governed from those that we recognize. 

Other means of promoting appreciation will be 
found in the article about the Porter School in this 
chapter, but after all the best road to musical appre- 
ciation is singing good music. 



92 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Bands and Orchestras 

The broadest movement in public school music 
to-day is the instrumental one. A school, to be up to 
date, should have an orchestra, but by this is not meant 
a group of guitar and mandoline players. Some good 
teachers of the town or neighborhood should be in- 
terested to give lessons to groups of children for a 
nominal fee. Arrange to allow the use of the school 
building, or some rooms in it, for this purpose. These 
lessons will be given outside the school hours, for 
cornet classes in particular do not "harmonize" well 
with the regular school work. 

Band and orchestra development is at its best in 
Oakland, California. Mr. Glenn Woods will be very 
willing to give the details of his organizations. 

Preparation of the Teacher (Self-Study) 

There is no other subject more adaptable to self- 
instruction than music. With a little assistance to 
get started wonderful progress can be made with no 
other instruction than that to be had by reading about 
music, by trying to produce music vocally or instru- 
mentally, and by hearing music. The phonograph and 
player piano place within reach of all the grandest 
music the world has produced. The technical side 
of music — i.e., theory, harmony, counterpoint, etc. — 
is easily mastered through textbooks. Of course the 
way is much shorter and easier under the guidance 



MUSIC 93 

of a teacher, but much can be done by the student 
for and by himself. 

One of the best works for the supervisor, or teacher, 
of music to possess is W. S. B. Matthews *s How to 
Understand Music (2 vols.). In this will be found a 
combination of all the subjects needed for self-study 
with the names and analyses of illustrative works, and 
a description of the different periods in the history 
of music. Enough of the selections called for are 
procurable for the player piano and phonographs to 
make possible a most excellent course of study to give 
general musicianship and appreciation. 

To prepare yourself in sight-reading secure any of 
the sets of books published for public school use and 
sing through them from beginning to end. Study each 
step. If it helps you it will help your pupils afterward. 
In this way you improve yourself and at the same time 
get many ideas for presenting the subject effectively. 
After the actual sight-reading material of the first 
four grades has been mastered, the task of the teacher- 
student is easy. The old Natural Music Course 
and its chart manual are the best for this work. In 
these books each step is carefully developed. The 
series lacks in song material, so has been succeeded 
by the Harmonic Music Course. But for the prospec- 
tive teacher, who wishes self -improvement, the former 
cannot be surpassed. 

Given a general knowledge of the subject and an 
understanding of just what is to be done, the teacher 



94 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

can prepare the lessons from day to day in advance 
of his class. In a short time he will find it no trouble 
at all to keep ahead of his class. 

Good singers and pianists are generally poor 
teachers in the schoolroom. They almost always 
are inclined to take too much of the time in displaying 
their own abilities. They do too much singing or 
playing with the children, and in this way interfere 
with their natural growth in independence. If you 
have a good voice, save it. If you play the piano well, 
use your art sparingly, when it will really help and 
not hinder your pupils. 

Community Gatherings 

Community gatherings are most needed in the 
country. The "getting together" of the first com- 
pany is the hardest part of the job. After one good 
meeting the rest is easy. 

The first meeting 

Be sure to have plenty of good songs that the 
people can sing. Let them sing; do not try to make 
them sing and do not sing at them. 

Almost every one knows "My Old Kentucky 
Home." It will be a good opening number. Waste 
no time in preliminaries. Get to singing at once. 
If this song is not familiar, use another that is. Do 
not be particular about the way the first song is sung. 
Keep at it by jest and encouragement till all are sing- 



MUSIC 95 

ing. When this is accompKshed, drop this selection 
and start a new one. Take a hymn for the second 
number. "How Gentle God's Commands " is gen- 
erally known. It is also very easy. The hymn singing 
will enlist some who at first will care for no other 
kind. Do not make the mistake of encouraging the 
expression of likes and dislikes. This will breed a lot 
of trouble. Some would sing only the things they liked, 
others would do the same with their favorites till there 
would always be a divided house. 

After singing one or two famihar melodies let the 
same be played on the machine, if the gathering is 
small. Call attention to the good points in the voices 
or style produced by the record. Immediately let 
the chorus try to imitate the quality and style just 
heard. 

Next, take up an entirely new song of widely con- 
trasting style. " Gypsy John," by Clay, is a good one. 
It is of easy range, has a lively, whole-souled melody, 
and words that will please old and young. If you 
cannot sing it for them, play it on the piano or on the 
machine. Then let the chorus try. Quite promptly 
change to another new song of different character. 
"Song of the Zuyder Zee," by Jules Jordan, would be 
fitting. As this song occurs in the opera "Rip Van 
Winkle," tell just enough of the action to show how 
it is introduced. Sing it and then let the others try. 
Get these numbers (or other similar ones) only fairly 
well started. Close the evening with any very, very 



96 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

familiar song or hymn. Make the first meeting brief. 
Leave a desire for more in the minds of the singers. 

In the first meeting pay no attention to the seating 
of the different parts (voices). Do nothing but sing. 
Adjust all other matters, such as placing together of 
the sopranos, altos, tenors, basses, and monotones, at 
later meetings. Eventually use the same seating plan 
as in the schoolroom. Great tact will be needed 
in doing this. Don't hurt any one's feelings if it is 
possible to avoid it. 

After the first meeting 

Many problems in voice production, ear training, 
etc., are encountered in these meetings. They should 
be handled in the same manner as in the schoolroom, 
but with greater tact. Of course these things cannot 
be done so openly as in the school, but they must be 
done. For example, songs should be sung that give 
special opportunities for correcting monotones. Tone 
quality may be improved by the use of the phono- 
graph, having the assembly try to imitate (in ensemble 
numbers) the artists' tone quality and phrasing as 
heard in the machine. 

Vary the program from meeting to meeting. Use 
the talking machine just enough to cause a desire to 
hear more, but the machine will not be found effective 
in large gatherings. 

The meetings should not last more than one and one 
haK hours. Several times during the year give a con- 



MUSIC 97 

cert to attract those not already interested. Help 
those who are to take part before or after regular 
meetings. 

In the country the county superintendent can be of 
the greatest assistance in organizing these meetings. 
Through him every part of the county may be reached. 
His influence on the teachers will bring a better re- 
sponse from them. The telephone is also a handy way 
of inviting people to the meetings and notifying them 
of any change in time or place of meeting. 



Songs that all can sing 

*'01d Kentucky Home." 
"How Gentle God's Commands.'* 
"Gypsy John," by Clay. 
"Song of the Zuyder Zee," by Jordan. 
"Old Folks at Home." 
"Old Guard," by Rodney. 
"Blow, ye Winds, Heigh-ho." 
"Massa's in de Cold, Cold Ground." 
"Brigand's Love Song," by Petrie. 

"Ave Maria," by Maseagni (for tone quality), "Inter- 
mezzo." 
"Who is Sylvia?" (tone quality). 
"Monotone," by Cornelius (for sustained pitch). 
"Hark, Hark, the Lark," by Schubert. 
"Blow, Blow, Thou Winter Wind," by Sarjeant. 
"My Own United St-ates," by Julian Edwards. 
"Star-Spangled Banner." 
"Sumer is Icumen in,'* old English ballad. 
"Should Auld Acquaintance be Forgot." 
"Noel," by Adams (Christmas). 
"Hark, the Herald Angels Sing." 
"Once Unto the Shepherds," by Jessie L. Gaynor. 



98 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

"Joy to the World." 

"O Little Town of Bethlehem," by Redner. 
"Dear Santa Claus," by Jessie L. Gaynor. 
"O Come, All Ye Faithful." 

"Jolly Old Saint Nicholas," published by Baldwin & Com- 
pany. 
"Old Santa Claus," in 101 Songs. 
"Silent Night, Holy Night." 
"In the Gloaming." 
"How Can I Leave Thee.?" 
"Alice, Where Art Thou " (two voices). 
"Three Blind Mice " (round). 
"Row, Row, Row Your Boat " (round). 
"Softly Now the Light of Day." 

All of these songs, except those with composer's, 
publisher's, or edition name after them, are fomid in 
The School Song Book, published by C. C. Birchard 
& Company, Boston, Massachusetts. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

1. On the voice and voice training : — 

a. The Child Voice in Singing. F. E. Howard. 

6. The Art of Breathing. Kofler. 

c. Voice Placing and Tone Production. H. H. Curtis. 

2. On teaching music : — 

a. On Musical Education. Bach. 

b. School Music Teaching. T. P. Giddings. 

c. Harmony Simplified. S. H. Shepard. 

3. On appreciation : — 

a. How to Understand Music (2 vols.)- Matthews. 

b. What to Hear in Music. Faulkner. 

c. The Orchestra and Orchestra Music. Henderson. 

4. On biography and history : — 

a. First Lessons in Music Biography. Thomas Topper. 

b. Lessons in Musical History. Fillmore. 

5. Standard music courses : — 

a. Music Course. Hollis E. Dunn. 

b. Harmonic Music Course. Ripley and Topper. 



MUSIC 99 



c. New Educational Music Course. 

d. Progressive Music Series. 

6. Rote songs : — ■ 

a. Congdon Primers. 

b. Primers. Alys E. Bentley. 

c. Primer to Eleanor Smith Music Course. 

d. Songs of the Child World. Jessie L. Gaynor. 

7. General song books : — 

a. School Song Book. McConathy. 

6. 101 Best Songs. Cable Piano Company. 



CHAPTER III 

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PLAY 

The modern need of physical education 

The legislatures of the different States of the Union 
are enacting laws that put uix)n the schools the respon- 
sibility of providing adequate physical education, to 
the end that the children of our land may become 
physically fit now and that they may enter manhood 
and womanhood physically fit. 

These laws express the popular will that the chil- 
dren of the Nation shall be so trained that physical 
vigor shall be a support for their intellectual life, their 
spiritual life, their industrial life, and last, but by no 
means least, for their civic and patriotic life. 

He whose blood is red, whose muscles are hard, 
whose sleep is sound, whose digestion is good, whose 
posture is erect, whose step is elastic, whose endurance 
is lasting, and whose nerves are steady, has just so 
many resources in life. Physical vigor and soundness 
contribute to happiness, to accomplishment, to service 
to society, state, and country. A new and a real gospel 
of health is being preached and increasingly practiced, 
a gospel in which there is a transfer of emphasis from 
the cure of disease to its prevention. 

Conditions of hfe to-day have not been without 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PLAY 101 

influence upon our attitude toward keeping physically- 
fit. Congestion of people in cities, the competition 
of business life, the inventions for saving time, which 
have "so strangely filched leisure from us," the nerv- 
ous strain and tension of American life, are among 
these conditions. Men and women are beginning to 
see that exercise, rest, and recreation are necessary if 
they are to do their part in the world. 

Surveys of the occupation of children during out-of- 
school hours have been made in Milwaukee, Toledo, 
Providence, St. Louis, Detroit, Ipswich, and Cleve- 
land. They show that about half the children who 
were observed, 23,549 in all, were loafing. These and 
other surveys made in rural communities show that 
children do not know how to play. They do not know 
the games familiar to children of the past and they 
have not invented new ones. 

If these surveys are indicative of the general situa- 
tion, it is evident that children to-day are not having 
anywhere near the amount of physical activity that 
children had a hundred years ago and that they are 
having much less than they need. 

Now that the need for physical education is gen- 
erally recognized, it becomes the duty of those re- 
sponsible for education to set themselves vigorously 
and intelligently to meeting it. To such responsible 
authorities comes the question, " What kind of phys- 
ical education shall we provide .5^" 

The answer is, "It must be simple enough to be 



102 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

directed by the teachers now in service, and it must 
be planned from the viewpoint of the children's abil- 
ities and interests." With these two considerations in 
mind the following program is suggested. 
First a word regarding 

The nature of children 

The normal life of children is one of physical activ- 
ity in the open air. Their natural playground is the for- 
est and the field with the streams and lakes in which 
to fish and swim. Gardens and woodsheds are the 
proper places for more serious exercise, while caring 
for domestic animals and pets and sharing the daily 
work of the family by doing "chores" is physical, 
mental, and social training of a high order. 

The human race has been developed by fighting, 
hunting, fishing, tilling the soil, caring for animals, 
and engaging in those activities that pertain to es- 
tablishing and maintaining families. Children have 
received in former times their physical, mental, and 
special training by participating in these primitive 
activities. But the changed conditions of life, brought 
about by civilization, have taken from them the incen- 
tive and even the opportunities for such activities. 
To make up for this loss physical education has come 
into existence. 

The modern prdblem 

Our problem, then, is to lead into adequate activity 
children who live in an environment not conducive to 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PLAY 103 

activity, who are not getting enough for proper growth 
and development, and who must spend a large part 
of their waking hours in school. We must so lead these 
children into activity that habits of exercise will be 
established; habits that will persist into adult life, for 
activity is not a thing which can be "stored up" for 
future use. 

This is not so technical a problem as we have been 
led to believe, and it is not at all beyond the ability 
of the average teacher to solve. The present plan of 
using graded exercises of the German or Swedish 
system for fifteen or twenty minutes per day, while 
better than nothing, is accomplishing only meager 
results, and it is questionable whether or not it justi- 
fies the expenditure made in carrying it out. 

Doubtless our mistake has been in trying to trans- 
plant foreign systems with which we are not at all "in 
tune." Formal work is necessary in the correction of 
deformities and it is of some value, if graded properly, 
in neutralizing the effects of unsatisfactory conditions 
of life; but to promote adequate physical activity the 
play instincts must be utilized. It is becoming evident 
that in America this is the only successful method of 
approach, and that the average teacher can stimulate 
greatly the physical, mental, and moral development 
of the boys and girls in this coimtry by promoting a 
scheme of activity based on children's primitive in- 
stincts. To carry out such a scheme the teacher 
needs little technical training. 



104 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Time available for physical education 

When any new school subject is proposed, there 
always arises the question, "Is there time?" The 
apparent lack of time is usually a stumbling-block to 
progress. But lack of time is not a serious hindrance 
to proper physical education, for it can be overcome 
by utilizing spare moments. There are, first, fifteen 
minutes per day usually set aside for physical training; 
second, one or two recesses of fifteen minutes each; 
third, the long noontime, usually one and one half 
hours; fourth, there is the time after school in the 
evenings and on Saturdays; fifth, the long summer 
vacation. Adding all this time together gives us a 
greater time total than that spent by the child in 
school. 

In view of the great importance of systematic 
physical exercise the school day may properly be 
lengthened a half -hour for all schools having less than 
a five-and-one-half-hour day. Where this has been 
done and the additional time has been given to really 
vigorous activity in the open air, pupils and teachers 
testify that the lengthened school day has not been 
an additional burden. 

How can the time be used ? 

Absolute control is exercised over the fifteen minutes 
per day set aside for physical training. This time 
should be used chiefly to counteract the effects of sit- 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PLAY 105 

ting still and to secure correct posture. If only fifteen 
minutes are available it should be divided into at least 
four periods of three to four minutes each, which will, 
with the recesses, break up the morning and afternoon 
sessions suflSciently. 

For these periods carefully arranged lessons have 
been published with exercises graded in complexity 
and severity of movement. While there is some merit 
in using carefully graded lessons, which any teacher 
can get from such books as Dr. Bancroft's Free Hand 
Gymnastics for Elementary Schools or Miss Clark's 
Physical Training for Elementary Schools, the main 
advantage can be gained if nothing more than ordi- 
nary stretching, bending, squatting, stationary run- 
ning, and deep breathing be indulged in. What the 
teacher is really trying to do is to stimulate circulation 
and respiration and to dissipate accumulation of blood 
that has become stagnant in the abdominal region. 

To secure these results the pupils must have mus- 
cular activity to the extent that they breathe hard, but 
without perspiring. While an attempt is often made 
to have an extended series of formal exercises in these 
short periods, ninety-five per cent of the possible 
value comes from muscular work regardless of the 
kind. An active indoors game is better than formal 
gymnastics, and an out-of-doors game is better still. 
During all indoors exercises have windows open. 
Never give exercises indoors when they can be given 
in the open air. 



106 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Posture 

Good posture is not so much a matter of muscles 
as it is a matter of mind. Children should be stimu- 
lated to want to stand and sit in good positions; their 
interest must be aroused. A most powerful incentive 
is the teacher's good example. Another incentive is 
the "posture test." If this is applied once each 
month and pupils are graded by it, a wholesome com- 
petition in good posture will be started that will bring 
excellent results. 

The "posture test" is applied as follows: A long 
straight stick (a window stick will do) is placed verti- 
cally beside a pupil so that the top of the stick touches 
the front part of the ear and the lower end touches the 
floor at the middle of the ball of the foot. If the pupil 
is standing properly the long axis of the head, neck, 
and trunk will form a straight line. 

Games and Exercises 

It is obvious that it is impossible here to do more 
than give general suggestions for exercises and games. 
Teachers are referred to available sources for full 
descriptions of those that are here proposed as exam- 
ples of desirable types suitable for the different 
grades : — 

Games for Grades I and II 

1. Singing and dancing games: — 

a. Farmer in the Dell. 

b. Mulberry Bush. 




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PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PLAY 107 

c. London Bridge. 

d. Looby Loo. 

e. Go Round and Round the Village. 

2. Games of imitation: — 

a. Trees: — 

1. Tall straight trees (hands up-streteh). 

2. Wind in trees (breathing in and out). 

3. Leaves falling (wiggle fingers and arms side 
down). 

4. Tree swaying and twisting in wind (body 
swaying and twisting). 

5. Trees bending before the wind (body bend- 
ing). ^ 

6. Bringing up leaves for bonfire (each row picks 
up leaves and runs around room and back to 
seats). 

h. House-cleaning (house-cleaning activities), 
c. Raking up leaves. 

3. Running games: — 

a. Cat and Mice. 
h. Slap-Jack. 

c. Squirrel in Trees. 

d. Changing Seats. 

e. Circle Seat Relay. 
^. Dances: — 

a. The Shoemaker. 

h. Baa-Baa, Black Sheep. 

c. I See You. 

Grade III 

{Monitors open loindows) ^ 

1. Class stand. 

2. Upward stretch (real stretch); four counts up; four 
counts down. 

3. March forward four counts, mark time four counts, 
march forward four counts, half-turn left. Repeat. 

* Even in cold weather these exercises should be given out-of- 
doors, if the condition of the ground is suitable. 



108 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

4. Position. Raise arms forward upward — 1, Lower side- 
ward downward — 2. 

5. Hands on hips. Bend trunk sideward left — 1. Return 

— 2. Same right — 3-4. 

6. Hands on shoulders. Inhale and extend arms sideward 

— 1. Exhale — 2-8. 

7. Hands on hips. Bend knees full — 1. Return — 2. 

8. Stride stand, hands on shoulders. Turn trunk left — 1. 
Return — 2. Same right — 3-4. 

9. Hands on shoulders. Raise left knee forward and ex- 
tend arms (slowly) — 1. Return — 2. Same right — 
3-4. 

10. Breathing as in No. 6. 

Games: — Dances: — 

Tag the Wall Relay. Indian Dance. 

Schoolroom Tag. Bleking. 

I say "Stoop." 
Have You Seen My Sheep? 

Grade IV 

(Monitors open vyindows) * 

1. Class stand. 

2. Stretching (up or side). 

3. Form columns of fours. Quarter wheel left, four counts. 
Repeat. 

4. Bend arms outward. Extend arms sideward — 1. Re- 
turn — 2. Same upward — 3. Return — 4. 

5. Hands on hips. Bend head and trunk backward — 1. 
Return — 2. 

6. Arms forward. Inhale and swing arms upward side- 
ward — 1. Exhale — 2-8. 

7. Bend arms outward. Bend knees half and extend arms 
sideward — 1. Return — 2. Same with arms upward — 
3. Return — 4. 

8. Position. Bend elbows backward — 1. Bend trunk 

* Even in cold weather these exercises should be given out-of- 
doors, if the condition of the ground is suitable. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PLAY 109 

forward and extend arms downward — 2. Return — 
3-4. 
9. Arms forward. Raise left leg backward and arms for- 
ward (slowly) — 1. Return — 2. Same right — 3-4. 
10. Breathing as in No. 6. 

Head up! Chin m! 

Games: — Dances: — 

All-up Relay. Hansel and Gretel. 

Arch-Ball. Dutch Couples. 

Vaulting Seats. 

Grade V 

(Monitors open windows) ^ 

1. Class stand. 

2. Stretching (up or side). 

3. Column of fours. March forward three steps, quarter 
' wheel left. Repeat three times. 

4. Arms forward. Swing arms upward sideward — 1. Re- 
turn — 2. 

5. Step forward left, hands on hips. Bend head and trunk 
backward — 1. Return — 2. 

6. Position. Inhale and swing arms forward upward side- 
ward — 1. Exhale — 2. 

7. Position. Charge sideward left and raise arms sideward 
— 1. Return — 2. Same right — 3-4. 

8. Hands on hips. Charge forward left — 1. Bend trunk 
forward — 2. Return — 3-4. Same right — 5-8. 

9. Hands on hips. Bend trunk sideward left and raise 
right leg sideward (slowly) — 1. Return — 2. Same 
right — 3-4. 

10. Breathing as in No. 6. 

Hel^d up! Chin in! 

Games: — Dances: — ■ 

Blackboard Relay. Clap Dance. 

Going to Jerusalem. Pop Goes the Weasel. 

Schoolroom Dodgeball. 

^ Even in cold weather these exercises should be given out-of- 
doors, if the condition of the ground is suitable. 



110 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Grade VI 

(Monitors open windows) ^ 

1. Class stand. 

2. Stretching. 

3. Column of fours. Mark time four counts, half wheel 
left, half turn left. Repeat with half wheel right and 
half turn right. 

4. Stride stand, arms forward. Bend left knee and raise 
left arm upward — 1. Return — 2. Same right — 3-4. 

5. Bend arms outward. Bend trunk backward and extend 
arms sideward obliquely upward — 1. Return — 2. 

6. Elbows backward. Inhale, extend arms forward and 
raise upward — 1. Exhale — 2-8. 

7. Position. Charge sideward left and raise arms sideward 
upward — 1. Return — 2. Same right — 3-4. 

8. Stride stand, arms upward. Turn trunk left and lower 
arms sideward. Return — 2. Same right — 3-4. 

9. Hands behind head. Bend trunk sideward left and raise 
right leg sideward (slowly) — 1. Return — 2. Same 
right — 3-4. 

10. Breathing as in No. 6. 

Head up! Chin in! 

Games: — Dances: — 

Desk Relay. All of Diamonds. 

Round Ball. Lottie is Dead. 

Vaulting Relay. 

Grade VII 

(Monitors open windows) ^ 

1. Class stand. 

2. Stretching. 

3. In columns of fours. Form to the left passing behind 
(eight counts). Left about face and repeat. 

* Even in cold weather these exercises should be given out-of- 
doors, if the condition of the ground is suitable. 
^Ihid. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PLAY 111 

4. Bend arms outward. Extend arms forward — 1. Re- 
turn — 2. Same sideward — 3-4. Same upward — 5-6. 
Same downward — 7-8. 

5. Step forward right, arms forward. Bend trunk half 
forward and raise arm upward — 1. Return — 2. 

6. Arms sideward. Inhale and bend arms sideward — 1-8. 
Exhale — 1-8. 

7. Position. Charge sideward left and swing arms forward 
sideward — 1. Return — 2. Same right — 3-4. 

8. Position. Charge forward left and raise arms forward — 
1. Bend trunk forward and place hands on hips — 2. 
Return — 3-4. Same right — 5-8. 

9. Position. Bend trunk sideward left, raise right leg and 
arms sideward (slowly) — 1. Return — 2. Same with 
trunk bending right and raising leg — 3-4. 

10. Breathing as in No. 6. 

Head up! Chin in! 

Games: — Dances: — 

Black and White. Jumping Jack. 

Blackboard Relay. Varsovienne. 

Schoolroom Volley-Bali. Sailors Hornpipe. 



Grade VIII 

(Monitors open windows) ^ 

1. Class stand. 

2. Stretching. 

3. Flank ranks of four. Form forward left, half wheel right, 
right face, form forward left, right face. 

4. Elbows backward. Extend arms forward — 1. Swing 
upward sideward — 2. Return — 3-4. 

5. Stride stand. Bend trunk half forward and raise arms 
sideward upward — 1. Return — 2. 

6. Position. Inhale, raise arms sideward, place hands on 
shoulders and bend head backward — 1. Exhale — 2-12. 

^ Even in cold weather these exercises should be given out-of- 
doors, if the condition of the ground is suitable. 



in THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

7. Arms sideward. Bend knees full and raise arms upward 

— 1. Return — 2. 

8. Position. Step forward left and place bells on shoulders 

— 1. Bend left knee, bend trunk sideward left and ex- 
tend arms sideward — 2. Return — 3-4. Same right 

— ^8. 

9. Position. Bend knees full and raise arms forward up- 
ward (slowly) — 1. Return — 2. 

10. Breathing as in No. 6. 

Head up! Chin in! 

Games: — Dances: — 

Wand Race. Csardas I. 

Schoolroom Captain Ball. Csardas II. 

Double Relay Race. Highland Fling. 

Principles Governing Physical Education 

These lessons are samples of exercises which can be 
given. They are graded, those of simple coordinations 
coming in the lower grades and the more complex ones 
coming in the higher. Each lesson is so arranged that 
the exercises demanding most effort are "worked up 
to" and each contains what are known as corrective 
and physiologic exercises. 

While all of this is desirable, remember that by 
giving exercises which involve the big muscles, those 
of the legs, back, and abdomen, you will give to your 
children ninety-five per cent of the value to be ob- 
tained from the periods usually assigned to physical 
training in the curriculum. While it is somewhat 
desirable to have graded lessons, it is not at all neces- 
sary; any other exercises of the big muscles doing 
nearly as well. I wish to emphasize this for the reason 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PLAY 113 

that most teachers "swamp" themselves with mas- 
tering the technique of this work and entirely overlook 
the much more important things in physical education. 

Recesses 

Organized recesses have not on the whole proved 
very successful for the following reasons : — 

1. Playgrounds are too small. 

2. Too many children are on the playground at one 
time. 

3. Playgrounds are not properly equipped. 

4. Activities which " have an appeal " are not 
selected. 

I am quite sure that, if only one or two rooms of 
children of nearly the same age were sent to the aver- 
age playground at one time and the children were 
shown how to organize their own games, recesses would 
be of much more value than they are generally. 

When it is necessary for a whole school to be turned 
out on the playground at one time, if the number of 
pupils is large, children are likely to receive more bene- 
fit from an "absence of restraint" than from organ- 
ized games under what will have to be close super- 
vision. They need to "blow off steam." Considerable 
success, however, has been gained by the use of a few 
games which can be played on playgrounds of limited 
area. 

Examples of games of this kind are "Rob the Mail." 
One boy is the mail carrier and is chased by all other 



114 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

boys; the one who catches him becomes carrier and 
is chased. "Black Man," "Poison Spot," "Bull in 
the Ring," "Three Deep," "Drop the Handkerchief," 
and "Black and White" are ako excellent games for 
recess. 

Influencing Children in Out-of-School Hours 

The out-of-school hours of children furnish by all 
odds the greatest opportunity for the promotion of 
physical activity, if we can find a way to utilize them. 
It can he done by ^* harnessing " the normal desires of 
children; by making their activities the natural expression 
of their fundamental instincts. 

Child psychologists tell us that there are seven fun- 
damental instincts to which we can appeal : — 

Fighting 

Hunting 

Exploring 

Building 

Nurturing 

Rhythm 

Cooperation 

It is true that these instincts vary in strength ac- 
cording to age, but a general plan which makes an ap- 
peal to all of them will promote the greatest interest. 
These are the instincts which, when satisfied by mus- 
cular effort, furnished the activities which produced 
an adequate physical education in the earlier life of 
the race, and only in recent years has a substitute 
been deemed necessary. There are still remaining many 



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PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PLAY 115 

opportunities for expression along all these lines. The 
problem is to bring the opportunities and the children 
together in such a way that every child will want to 
express himself in each of the ways mentioned. 

It will readily be seen that, if a teacher has a large 
number of children under her direction, she will need 
help in harnessing these instincts. She must delegate 
much of the detail work to the children themselves, 
and this means organization. 

Organizing a School for Physical Activities 
To deserve a place in a public school system an 
organization should (1) give opportunity for expres- 
sion to all pupils; (2) present "things to do" in such 
an attractive form as will insure their being done. 
Interscholastic, interclass and interroom plans fall 
short of the ideal in these particulars. The organ- 
ization to make the greatest appeal must furnish 
opportunity and encouragement for team play, for in- 
dividual competition, and for improvement in accom- 
plishment. 

Such an organization need not have a constitution 
and by-laws. It may be quite informal, but it should 
embody the following principles : — 

1. The teacher should not be overworked. Confine her 
work to a reasonable school day. » 

2. Delegate most of the work of supervision to pupils, to 
develop leadership. 

3. Engage all children in activities on an equal basis. 

4. Furnish opportunity for team work. 



116 



THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 



5. Furnish opportunity for individual achievement. 

6. Give credit for individual improvement. 

7. Present opportunity for all-around activity. 

8. Make it desirable for each child to participate in every- 
thing. 

9. Show standing of each team and individual at all 
times. This organization is most useful during spring, 
summer, and fall; therefore the program should in- 
clude activities adapted to these seasons. 

Activities which would furnish in a high degree ex- 
pression of the fundamental instincts of children might 
be selected as follows : — 
Fighting 

Hunting 

Cooperation 



Baseball 

Dodge-ball or volley-ball 
Athletics 
Tether-ball 
.Quoits 



("Kites 
Building -! Bird-houses 
[Playthings 

'Gardening 
Home 
Nurturing <, Box 
Pot 
.Caring for pets 

'Collecting — ferns, leaves, stones, 
woods, seeds, etc. 
Exploring <J Observing — birds and their homes, animals 

both wild and domestic, in- 
sects, etc. 
{Folk-dancing 
Singing games 
Marching 

These are a few of the activities which can be chosen. 
They provide an all-around expression, which every 
boy and girl should get if he is really to be educated. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PLAY 117 

It is always desirable to separate girls from boys 
and to keep those of different ages together, providing 
for Junior (six to nine years), intermediate (ten to 
thirteen years), and senior (fifteen to sixteen years) 
sections. When this cannot be done, the activities 
may be made more general without sacrificing the 
plans of procedure. What we are trying to do is to 
draw children into activity by means of their own 
desire for standing in the organization; we are trying 
to "add the power of organization'* to the satisfac- 
tion of doing each of these things. 

A chart which keeps constantly before the children 
their standing, and which keeps before the teacher the 
records, is essential. It should be kept in the school- 
room, and is the only record which need be kept, 
although it has been found convenient to have a 
double record system in case of accident to the chart. 

The following chart was successfully used to bring 
children into activity. It is a chart for recording 
results of boys' activities. Some modifications to suit 
individual needs may be necessary, but some such 
chart is strongly recommended. 

How to organize teams 

It makes for success if, in selecting the teams, care 
is taken that they be evenly matched. This may be 
accomplished in the following manner: — 

After carefully presenting the plan, the teacher may 
make the first groups. Have these play together for 



118 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

a while (two weeks), with the idea that each is to de- 
cide on the best players for captains. It is well to 
describe a good captain. Then have the groups elect. 
After the election bring the captains together after 
school or at dinner at your home and explain to them 
the plan in detail. Then place on a blackboard or on 
paper the names of all boys who are to take part and 
have the captains "choose up." In a similar way the 
girls may be organized. 

This plan gives you an organization of groups of 
seven or nine (as many as you need for baseball), so 
chosen that, supposedly, the best player is first and the 
poorest the last on each team, convenient if it becomes 
necessary to substitute players on other teams when 
a team is "short," a player from any other team, 
standing on a level or below him, being eligible. By 
keeping close to the captains through a "Captains* 
Organization," the work of the teacher can be mini- 
mized and the training of the boys and girls increased. 

Scoring 

Each child is given credit for the score of his team 
and in the individual activities gets credit for what 
he actually makes. For instance, if Team A defeats 
Team B by a score of 7 to 3, each member of Team A 
will get 7 points and each member of Team B will 
get 3 points. 

The athletics are scored according to the accom- 
panying chart. 



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Dancing 


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STERLING SENIOR LEAGUE, 1918 -BOYS 





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Gam 


es 


Athletics j 


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Collec- 


Building 


Gardens 


1 

Dancing 


Story- 


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Members [ 


Baseball 


"AT 


Quoits 


Tether- R. H. 75 yd. 
Ball Jump Run 


8-lb. 3S. B. 
shot Jump 


Chin 




Home 


Box 


Pot 










^ 


L. Jones, Cap. 


1 


1 


i 
















I 
i 
















H. Abers 




































W. Garder 






















j 












«* 


F. Johnson 




































I 




C. James 












1 
























J. Hams 






















I 
















R. Kist 












! 










1 














8. 


S. Pond 
T. Corns 




















! 












Total 








1 


















i 






















1 


























1 


H. Smith, Cap. 




































- 


i. 
S 


M. Foran 

A. Short 






































J 


4 


R. Birt 






































I 


R 


F. Schultz 








































6 


C. Bark 
































1 




^ ^ 




H. WlUis 
































' 




8. 
9. 


M. Hogan 
A. Taylor 
































Total 






























i . 




- 




























1 

i 
1 












































1 






























i 














































































1 

















Total 
















1 








1 


1 


\ ^ 


1 














































PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PLAY 



119 



THE UNIVERSAL ATHLETIC SCORING CHART 




sec. 


sec. 


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ft. in. 


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ft. in. 


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90 


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18 


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95 


2-10 


10- 6 


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19 




2-52 


28 


4- 3 


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llf 


14 


5 


100 


2-11 


11 


6 


18 


20 


8 


2-50 


30 


4-5 


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105 


3 


11- 1 


6- 1 


18- 2 


20-6 




2-48 


32 


4- 6 


12 








110 


3- 1 


11-2 


6- 2 


18-4 


21 




2-46 


34 


4- 7 


13 








115 




11- 3 


6- 3 


18- 6 


21-6 




2-44 


36 


4-8 


14 








120 


3- 2 


11- 4 


6- 4 


18- 8 


22 




2-42 


38 


4- 9 


15 


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125 




11- 5 


6- 5 


18-10 


22-6 




2-40 


40 


4-10 


16 








130 


3- 3 


11- 6 


6- 6 


19 


23 




2-38 


42 


4-11 


17 








135 




11-7 


6- 7 


19- 2 


23-6 




2-36 


44 


5 


18 








140 


3- 4 


11- 8 


6- 8 


19-4 


24 




2-34 


46 


5-1 


19 








145 




11- 9 


6- 9 


19- 6 


24-6 




2-32 


48 


5- 14 


20 


llf 


131 


6 


150 


3- 5 


11-10 


6-10 


19-8 


25 


7f 


2-30 


50 


5- 1; 


21 








155 




11-11 


6-11 


19-10 


25-6 




2-28 


51 


5- 2 


22 








160 


3-6 


12 




20 


26 




2-26 


52 


5-2| 


23 








165 




12- 1 




20- 2 


26-6 




2-24 


53 


5-3 


24 








170 


3-7 


12-2 




20- 4 


27 




2-22 


54 


5-3^ 


25 








175 




12- 3 


7 


20- 6 


27-6 




2-20 


55 


5-4 


26 








180 


3- 8 


12- 4 




20- 8 


28 




2-18 


56 


5-4^ 


27 








185 




12- 5 




20-10 


28-6 




2-16 


57 


5-5 


28 








190 


3- 9 


12- 6 


7- 1 


21 


29 




2-14 


58 


5-5§ 


29 








195 




12- 7 




21- 1 


29-6 




2-12 


59 


5-6 


30 


111 


13f 


7 


200 


3-10 


12- 8 


7- 2 


21- 2 


30 


7i 


2-10 


60 


5-6^ 


31 








205 




12- 9 




21- 3 


30-3 




2- 9 


61 


5-7 


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210 


3-11 


12-10 


7- 3 


21- 4 


30-6 




2- 8 


62 


5-7^ 


33 








215 




12-11 




21- 5 


30-9 




2-7 


63 


5-8 


34 








220 


4 


13 


7- 4 


21- 6 


31 




2- 6 


64 


5- 8| 


35 


11 




8 


225 








21- 7 


31-3 




2-5 


65 


5-9 


36 








230 




13- 1 


7- 5 


21-8 


31-6 




2- 4 


66 


5-9§ 


37 








235 








21- 9 


31-9 




2- 3 


67 


5-10 


38 








240 


4- 1 


13-2 


7-6 


21-10 


32 




2- 2 


68 


5-10^ 


39 








245 








21-11 


32-3 




2- 1 


69 


5-11 


40 


lot 


13g 


9 


250 




13-3 


7- 7 


22 


32-6 


7§ 


2 


70 


5-111 


41 








255 








22- 1 


32-9 




1-59 


71 


6 


42 








260 


4- 2 




7- 8 


22- 2 


33 




1-58 


72 


6- § 


43 








265 








22-3 


33-3 




1-57 


73 


6-1 


44 








270 




13- 4 


7-9 


22- 4 


33-6 




1-56 


74 


6- li 


45 




13^ 


10 


275 








22- 5 


33-9 




1-55 


75 


6-2 


46 








280 


4- 3 




7-10 


22- 6 


34 




1-54 


76 


6-2^ 


47 








285 








22- 7 


34-3 




1-53 


77 


6-3 


48 








290 




13- 5 


7-11 


22- 8 


34-6 




1-52 


78 


6-3^ 


49 








295 








22- 9 


34-9 




1-51 


79 


6-4' 


50 




13 


11 


300 


4- 4 




8 


22-10 35 1 




1-50 


80 


G-^ 



120 



THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 



THE UNIVERSAL ATHLETIC SCORING CHART 





sec. 


sec. 


ti. 


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ft. in. i 


t.in. 


ft. in. ft. in. 


3ec. 


min. 
sec. 


feet 


ft.in. 


1 


i 


i 


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1 


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5 


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1 

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11 
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1 

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8 


80 





51 








302 








22-11 


35- 2 




l-49i 


6- 5 


52 


lOf 






304 




13- 6 




23 


35- 4 




1-^9^ 


81 


6- 5J 


53 








306 








23- 1 


35- 6 




1-^81 


82 


6-6 


64 








308 


4-5 




8- 1 


23- 2 


35- 8 




l-48i 


83 


6-6i 


55 






12 


310 








23-3 


35-10 


7i 


1-48 


84 


6-7 


66 








312 




13-7 




23-4 


36 




1-473 


85 


6-7^ 


57 








314 








23- 5 


36- 2 




1-471 


86 


6-8 


58 






13 


316 






8-2 


23- 6 


36- 4 




1-461 


87 


6- 8^ 


59 








318 








23- 7 


36- 6 




1-461 


88 


6-9 


60 




121 




320 


4-6 


13-8 




23- 8 


36-8 




1-46 


89 


6-9i 


61 






322 








23-9 


36-10 




1-451 


90 


6-10 


62 








324 






8-3 


23-10 


37 




1-451 


91 


6-10^ 


63 








326 




13-9 




23-11 


37-2 




l-44t 


92 


6-11 


64 


lOf 




14 


328 








24 


37- 4 




1-44| 


93 


6-11^ 


65 








330 


4-7 






24- 1 


37-6 




1-44 


94 


7 


66 








332 




13-10 


8- 4 


24- 2 


37- 8 




l-43g 


95 




67 








3M 








24- 3 


37-10 




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96 




68 






15 


336 








24- 4 


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1-421 


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69 








338 








24- 5 


38-2 




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70 




121 




340 


4-8 


13-11 


8-5 


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38-4 


7 


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7- h 


71 








342 








24- 7 


38- 6 




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100 




72 






16 


344 




14 




24- 8 


38- 8 




l-4l| 


101 




73 








340 








24- 9 


38-10 




1-401 


102 




74 








348 




14- 1 


8-6 


24-10 


39 




1-40| 


103 




75 






17 


350 


4-9 






24-11 


39- 2 




1-40^ 


104 


7-1 


76 


lOi 






352 




14- 2 




25 


39- 4 




1-393 


105 




77 








354 








25-1 


39- 6 




1-39| 


106 




78 






18 


356 




14-3 


8- 7 


25-2 


39- 8 




1-381 


107 




79 








358 








25- 3 


39-10 




1-388 


108 




80 




12f 




360 


4-10 


14-4 




25-4 


40 




1-38^ 


109 


7-1^ 


81 








362 








25- 5 


40-2 




l-37f 


110 




82 






19 


364 




14-5 


8- 8 


25-6 


40-4 




I-37I 


111 




83 








366 








25- 7 


40- 6 




1-36| 


112 




84 








368 




14- 6 




25-8 


40- 8 




l-36¥ 


113 




85 


jn 




20 


370 








25- 9 


40-10 


6| 


1^6 


114 


7- 2 


86 








372 




14-7 


8-9 


25-10 


41 




l-35§ 


115 




87 








374 








25-11 


41-2 




I-35I 


116 




88 


10 




21 


376 




14-8 




26 


41-4 




I-34I 


117 




89 








378 








26- 1 


41- 6 




118 




90 




12i 




38C 


4-11 


14^9 


8-10 


26-2 


41- 8 




1-34 


119 


7-2^ 


91 








382 








26- 3 


41-10 




l-33§ 


120 




92 






22 


384 








26-4 


42 




l-33i 


121 




93 








38( 




14-10 




26- 5 


42-2 




1-321 


122 




94 








38e 








26- 6 


42- 4 




1-321 


123 




95 






23 


39( 






8-11 


26-7 


42- 6 




1-32 


124 


7- 3 


96 








39S 




14.-11 




26- 8 


4'2- ? 




l-31f 


125 




97 








39^ 








26- 9 


42-lC 




1-3H 


126 




98 






24 


39 








26-10 


43 




1-304 


127 




99 








39 


B 






26-11 


43- S 




1-30| 


128 




100 


9f 


12 


25 400 5 


15 


9 


27 


43-^ 


I 6i 


1-30 


129 


7-3J 








1 


1 








130 1 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PLAY 121 

When a contestant wins a quoit match, 21 to 17, he 
gets credit for 21 points and his opponent 17. SHps 
of paper are provided for use of contestants in teth- 
erball and quoits, and after they have played their 
match the score is placed on it and signed by both 
contestants. It is then turned over to the scorer or 
assistant scorer. All disputes are settled by the cap- 
tains' organization with the aid of the teacher if 
necessary. When time is a factor, schedules in these 
events bring together only the captains in one group, 
the first men in the second, the third men in another, 
etc., etc. 

The "points" credited for building something, for 
learning a folk-dance, for caring for a garden, or for 
making a collection, may be determined by the teacher. 
The schedule of points should be determined in ad- 
vance and displayed. Performance may be rated A, B, 
C, D, according to quality. It wall be noted that on 
the scoring chart there are not enough spaces to score 
every performance. This might be desirable if time 
and space permitted, but usually they do not, and the 
poHcy is to lead children to express themselves along 
a certain line just often enough to awaken a love for 
doing the thing for its own sake. 

Requisites for success 

A plan of this kind does not "just run Itself." 
There are many chances for it to go astray, and the 
teacher must watch it carefully; but the results in 



122 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

physical activity, mental and moral education, will 
entirely compensate for tlie time and tliought ex- 
pended. 

Aid.s to success 

1. Get the plan clearly in your own mind. 

2. Present it to the pupils in tlie most attractive way. 
8. Give it enthusiastic U^adership. 

4. Choose teams so that tliey will be of equal strength. 

5. Post records accmately and promptly. 

6. Do not "boss" the group; just direct it. 

7. Make an "occasion" of tlie closuig-up of the season s 
work. 

The successful carrying-out of some such plan as 
this, which embraces the physical exercises in the 
schoolroom, the organized recess, and the organized 
out-of -school hours of school children, is an educational 
necessity, and will go far toward answering the five 
demands on teachers which are becoming more and 
more insistent, namely : — 

1. A demand for counteracting the influence of long sit- 
ting in school. 

2. A demand for ph^'sical activity. 

3. A demand for the furnishing of "experiences" to chil- 
dren. 

4. A demand for education for leisure time. 

5. A demand for social education. 

Helps for teacJiefs 

Other means of stimulating activity are found in 
such organizations as the Boy Scouts of America, 
Camp-Fire Girls, and the Athletic Badge Tests pro- 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PLAY 123 

moted by the Playground and Recreation Association 
of America. Full information in regard to these organ- 
izations can be obtained by writing to 

The Boy Scouts of America, 

124 East 28th St., New York City. 
Camp-Fire Girls of America, 

118 East 28th St., New York City. 
The Girl Scouts of America, 

New York City. 
Playground and Recreation Association of America, 

1 Madison Ave., New York City. 

RuEAL Schools 

The foregoing program of physical education, be- 
cause it is relatively simple and is built upon the 
natural instincts of children, is as workable in one- 
room rural schools as it is in highly graded town and 
city schools. 

The teacher* s opportunity 

Let us consider the problem of the rural teacher who 
seems to be most unfavorably situated, the one with- 
out a sui>ervisor who can help, and without a special 
teacher of physical education to plan with her and 
cooperate in carrying out a program. Even without 
such help, desirable as it is, such a teacher is not help- 
less, for she has her conviction that her pupils need 
physical training, she has her human interest in the 
welfare of her pupils, she has her own intelligence, 
she has her pupils with their abounding vitality ready 
to be directed, and she has the big out-of-doors. 



124 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

The older pupils as leaders 

If the older pupils can be interested the teacher has 
made a good beginning. To start them thinking let 
them write letters to the various organizations men- 
tioned in the previous section. These letters should 
briefly describe the school and ask for such help as 
the organization can give. Another letter may be 
directed to the Chairman of the Board of Education 
asking that one or two books be bought for the use of 
the school. These books may be chosen from the list 
given at the close of this chapter. 

The returns from these letters will bring to the school 
information of a practical sort. 

The next step is to organize the school, or the more 
mature part of it, as suggested in the preceding pages. 

The officers and other appointed members of the 
athletic association of the school can, with a little 
training and later supervision, be put in charge of the 
activities of the younger pupils, of the games and con- 
tests, and they may even lead the setting-up or relax- 
ation exercises in the schoolroom. These two- or three- 
minute stretching and breathing drills should not be 
omitted in the rural school. 

Equipment 

While apparatus is not essential at the outset a 
certain amoimt will soon be called for. A selection 
may be made from the following list: — 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PLAY 125 

For hoys and girls 

Tether-balls 

Sand-pit for broad jumping 

Rubber quoits or rings 

Basket-ball and baskets 

Football 

playground baseballs and bats 

Volley-ball 

For hoys For girls 

Pole-vaulting set Long jumping-ropes 

Low horizontal bar Short jumping-ropes 

A few low hurdles Bean-bags 

Grace hoops 
Bag boards 
Soft rubber balls 
Indoor baseball 

The funds to carry out a reasonable program of 
physical education can be secured. Every school, par- 
ticularly every rural school, should have such a fund 
on hand all the time. Through entertainments of 
various kinds the school can earn money for library 
books, pictures, school-ground improvement, garden 
tools, and also for playground apparatus. The prepa- 
ration and giving of these entertainments may be 
made substantially educational as is shown in the first 
chapter of the book. 

Maintaining interest 

Having started and organized the physical train- 
ing interest, it may be maintained by the records of 
achievement, by giving an extra half-hour occasion- 



126 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

ally to the competitive sports, and by a Field Day in 
June and October. This Field Day may be combined 
with Parents' Day, or what is better, all the schools 
of a town or district may come together for an all-day 
meet. 

It is possible in many school districts to secure the 
cooperation of local organizations and of public- 
spirited citizens. Competent women of leisure may 
be induced to organize bird-study and wild-flower 
study groups of girls, or even a Camp-Fire or Girl 
Scouts troop. It may be more diflBcult to enlist the 
right kind of men in a boys' organization, but, if this 
can be done, a great service will be rendered. Boys in 
the country are as much in need of the social life of 
a well-conducted Boy Scouts company, they will be 
as much benefited physically and morally by the 
carrying-out of the wholesome program of this mag- 
nificent organization as will their city brothers. 

Now that the program of physical education has 
been worked out from the standpoint of the natural 
activities of children, now that it is seen that the 
best place for exercise is the unlimited out-of-doors 
rather than a gymnasium, no matter how elaborately 
equipped, and that little apparatus is needed, it would 
appear that every school in the land, rural and city, 
should have its program of physical education as 
actively and effectively carried out as is the pro- 
gram of reading, writing, and arithmetic; for surely 
physical welfare is no less important than intellectual 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PLAY 127 

culture as a factor in right living and in achieving a 
successful career. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

1. On the general subject: — 

a. Play and Recreation for the Open Country. H. S. Curtis. 

b. Gymnastics, Games, and Rhythmic Plays. Lydia Clark. 

c. Posture of the School Child. Jessie H. Bancroft. 

d. Education through Play. H. S. Curtis. 

2. On athletics: — 

a. Rational Athletics for Boys. Frederick J. Reilly. 

6. Schoolyard Athletics. James E. Sullivan. 

c. Guide to Track and Field Contests. W. A. Stecher. 

3. Handbooks: — 

a. Official Handbook of the Girls' Branch of the Public School 
Athletic League. Published annually. New York City. 

b. Spalding's Athletic Library. (Each book treats of a separate 
sport. Send for the catalogue.) 



CHAPTER IV 

SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 
Planning the Work 

Seat work is one of the chief means at the teach- 
er's disposal in the primary school for developing in 
pupils habits of independent, thoughtful work and for 
carrying out other educational aims of the school. It 
must not be thought of as isolated, as something with 
which to keep a class merely busy, but rather as an 
opportunity for deepening impressions, for training 
the pupils in expressing and using ideas, and for giv- 
ing them skill in handling tools. 

In general it will be found that, on the one hand, 
those activities are adapted to seat work that call 
for either creative or interpretative work. To this 
class belong reading, the working-out of number rela- 
tions, some forms of word and sentence study, and 
simple tasks in manual work. It will be found that, 
on the other hand, those activities must be excluded 
that call for the careful building-up of certain defi- 
nite habits. To this class belong penmanship, most 
forms of written composition, and such computations 
as the addition of long columns of figures. 

Winning the cooperation of the pupils 

To get the best results it is important that the 
pupils should take hold of their seat work with en- 



SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 129 

thusiasm. This they will do if its character is such 
that they see the value of it, and if occasionally they 
are called upon to help in planning different tasks. 
When the opportunity occurs, the teacher should let 
the pupils suggest ways of carrying out a particular 
piece of work and then choose the way that they 
as a class, or as individuals, prefer to follow. In this 
work the teacher should act as a wise counselor. 
Those enterprises, which to the children in their first 
enthusiasm seem possible but which are beyond their 
ability to carry out, she should tactfully curtail with- 
out destroying the children's sense of responsibility 
and without taking away from them their privilege 
of making a choice. 

WTien the tasks are of such a nature that they can- 
not be planned by the children, they should be put 
in a form attractive to them. A drill exercise con- 
ducted as a game or a puzzle will call forth earnest 
and prolonged effort, and therefore its effects will be 
more definite and lasting than if given merely as a 
prescribed task. 

Economizing time in preparation 

In preparing work it will be found economical of 
time so to plan exercises that those of different kinds 
may be exchanged among the pupils from day to 
day. The making of a large number of copies of each 
exercise will thus be avoided. When it is necessary 
to make duplicates, a hektograph may be used. For 



130 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

further economy of her time a teacher should make 
use of the material of educational value that can be 
ordered from any of the large supply stores. 

Supervision 

At the end of each recitation period, a teacher 
should take a few minutes to show her appreciation 
of what the children have been doing at their seats, 
to give help where it is needed, and to have the pupils 
examine and criticize each other's work. She may 
have the children leave their seats to see what others 
have been doing, or she may have diflFerent pieces of 
work held up before the class and talked over in a 
spirit of friendly criticism. 

In inspecting the seat work young teachers some- 
times make the mistake of breaking up a child's work 
when he has finished an exercise, and, in order to fill 
up time, of asking him to do the exercise again. This 
is likely to discourage a child, for it implies that his 
achievement is in the eyes of the teacher of little 
consequence. 

Measuring results 

To get an adequate return for the effort made, it 
is well occasionally to evaluate the work. In doing so 
the following questions will be found helpful : — 

1. Is the seat work kept in such close relation to the work 
of the recitation that it is a valuable help in carrying 
out the aims of the school? Does it train the children 
to think and work by themselves? 



SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 131 

2. Are the pupils interested in the work? Do they see its 
value so as to work through difficulties with persist- 
ence and even with enthusiasm? Are the pupils show- 
ing progress? 

S. Is the work relatively free from influences that produce 
bad habits, nerve and eye-strain, and mental dullness 
that comes from mechanical repetition? 

4. Does the work bring adequate returns for the effort 
made by the teacher and pupils? Is it of such a char- 
acter as to be easily supervised? 

Silent Reading — Grades I and II 

When the silent reading done as seat work is kept 
in close relation with the recitations in reading, not 
alone does it aid materially in giving the pupils skill 
in interpreting the printed page, but it also develops 
their power of close concentration. Abundant ma- 
terial for this purpose should be provided in every 
school. 

The morning study period 

After the pupils in the first grade have mastered 
the first elements of reading, the training in silent 
reading may be started advantageously. The teacher 
chooses for this work a few minutes early in the day 
when the children are still fresh, and dignifies the 
time used by giving it the name, "Our Study Period." 
The teacher sits quietly at her desk with a book be- 
fore her. The members of the class, imitating her, 
sit quietly at their seats busily reading. 

At first the lessons that have been read in class time 
are used. The motive given for studying is, "Let us 



132 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

study so that we may read our lesson smoothly," or, 
"Let us see if we can read the story from the begin- 
ning to the end." 

Later on this quiet study period may be used for 
reading new stories. For example, some morning the 
teacher may choose a simple version of such a story 
as Snow White and Rose Red. Books are passed out, 
the right page is found, and then the teacher says, *'In 
our books we have the story of something strange that 
happened to two little children. One stormy evening 
they heard a knock at the door. They opened the 
door and saw something that surprised them very 
much, something that neither you nor I have ever 
seen when we have answered a knock at the door. I 
want you to read the story and find out what it was 
these children saw. I shall know by your faces when 
you come to that part of your reading." 

The teacher, with a copy of the book in her hand, 
then sits quietly at her desk ready to give an appre- 
ciative smile whenever a child glances at her to show 
his pleasure in the "surprise" in the story. Mean- 
while she is studying her children to note which are 
having difficulty, and to discover the possible causes. 
During the recitation that follows the study period, 
the children are asked to talk about the interesting 
things found in their reading. Later particular atten- 
tion is given to those children who were having diffi- 
culty during the silent reading period. 

Instead of having all the children read the same 



SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 133 

story, each child may be asked to choose and prepare 
a different story with which to entertain the class. For 
this purpose books may be cut up. The rhymes and 
simple little stories that they contain may be mounted 
on the inside of leaflets made of dark-colored drawing 
paper folded once. A title and picture may be pasted 
on the outside of each leaflet. The children should 
be encouraged to study these selections at school and 
to take them home for practice in reading. 

Reading a book by one^s self 

The early morning study period should be contin- 
ued well into the second grade. As soon as the pupils 
have acquired some power in concentration they will 
be able to study when a recitation is going on; but at 
least one period should be set aside each session for 
quiet study when there are no disturbing noises or 
movements. 

When in the teacher's judgment pupils are able to 
read through an entire book by themselves, it should 
be given them to keep in their desks. Each pupil 
should use some form of bookmark by which to keep 
his place from day to day. The teacher occasionally 
should ask questions about the stories read, saying: 
"Did you find any interesting stories.? " " WTiat were 
they about?" or, "Which story did you Hke the 
best?" 

It is quite possible for some of the children to read 
from ten to twenty supplementary readers in a year 



134 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

and to reap all the training in concentration and in 
fluency that such a task means. For this work texts 
simpler than the ones studied in class time should be 
ordered, and, for the sake of economy, there should 
be no duplicates. A set of twenty different books will, 
it is evident, supply a larger amount of reading than 
a set all alike. 



Silent Reading — Grades III and IV 

Finding the answer to a pfohlem 

In the third and fourth grades one or more ques- 
tions may be given the pupils to answer as they study 
their reading lessons. These questions may be of this 
order: "Can the story be given another name?" 
"What is the most interesting thing that happens in 
the story?" "What persons do you like the best in 
the story?" "Why?" "If you were going to make a 
picture of some part of the story, what would you 
put in it? " 

Finding something to tell 

A reproduction of a long story when given by a 
single child is usually tedious to a class, but a reci- 
tation where each child is asked to tell just one new 
thing about the story that is being studied is enjoyed 
by every one. No attempt to have the story told in 
order need be made. Each child should be allowed to 
contribute his part at will. 



SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 135 

Being ready with a question 

Instead of pupils being ready to answer questions 
or to tell a part of the story, each child may be asked 
to prepare, during his study period, one or more ques- 
tions to ask his classmates. The questions selected 
should be only those that the pupil himself can an- 
swer. 

Planning a dramatization 

Another profitable form of silent study may be 
applied to dramatic readers. The books are given out 
and the pupils are asked to plan, while studying, how 
to carry out the play they are reading. 

Guessing riddles 

Riddles pasted on leaflets of dark-colored drawing 
paper are passed out to the pupils to be read and 
guessed during a study period. Such, for example, as; 



They are seen on the trees; 

They are seen on the ground; 

They are seen in the air softly whirling around; 

They're as bright as the gay feathered birds we see fly. 

Or a piece broken off a clear sunset sky. 

They sing rustling songs 

When our footsteps they hear. 

And their name is well known, for they come every year.^ 

* Answer: Autumn leaves. 



136 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

II 

Ring the bell and blow the horn. 

The house has run away. 
The parlor and the sitting-room, 

I could n't make them stay. 
The kitchen and the dining-room. 

Have gone off arm in arm 
And all the little bedrooms, too, 

I fear they'll come to harm.i 

Word and Sentence Drills — Grades I and II 

The character of the word and sentence drills given 
will depend upon the methods used in teaching read- 
ing and spelling, but, in general, the following exer- 
cises will be found helpful. 

Matching script with print 

To train pupils in the recognition of words in both 
script and print, cards of oak tag are made for sen- 
tence building. On one set of cards is printed a group 
of from ten to fifteen sentences containing the words 
upon which a class is to be drilled. The words on 
these cards are cut apart, and the sets put into sep- 
arate envelopes together with the same sentences in 
script written on strips of oak tag. Each child is given 
an envelope from which he takes the cards. He then 
builds sentences, in the way shown below, by placing 
the printed words below the corresponding words in 
the sentence in script. 

1 Answer: Railroad train. 



SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 137 



i^lyOO^l^^ ^^^^ 



Sing, 



little 



bluebird. 



At the close of the period different children should be 
called upon to read the sentences that they have built. 
When cards for this exercise are purchased from 
a supply store, care should be taken to buy those on 
which the words are capitalized on one side of the 
card and written with small letters on the other. To 
economize writing, if the sentences to be reproduced 
do not come in script with the sets of printed cards, 
the teacher may use a hektograph, or she may write 
the sentences on the blackboard instead of supplying 
each pupil with a set. When a teacher is dependent 
on her own resources for the material for this exer- 
cise, she will find it a good plan to cut out sentences 
from discarded primers, being careful to trim off from 
the printed words all soiled margins. 

Matching script with script 

The device given above of matching script with 
print may be used also for training pupils in the re- 
cognition of script alone. In this case both sets of 
cards, the uncut sentence cards and the word cards, 
are in script. To economize labor in preparing this 
exercise a teacher may make the sentences in the dif- 



138 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

ferent envelopes vary from one another. Instead of 
making twenty-one duplicates of an exercise, for ex- 
ample, she may make three sets of seven envelopes 
each, which are changed about until each pupil has 
become skillful in the use of all three sets of exercises. 

Building original 'sentences and sentences from 
memory 

Later on, after the pupils have become familiar 
with a good many sentences, the teacher removes the 
sentence cards from the envelopes used in the exer- 
cises above and asks the pupils to build sentences 
from memory and to think out sentences of their own 
that could be built from the words in the envelopes. 
Here again at the end of the period the teacher should 
take a few moments to look over the work and to 
listen to the reading of some of the sentences. 

Naming colors 

(l) Into each envelope to be passed to the pupils 
are placed pieces of paper of different colors together 
with the names of the colors written on oak tag. Each 
child is supposed to arrange the colors in a rainbow 
sequence — red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet — 
and after each to place its name. (2) In each envelope 
is placed also a carefully selected colored picture. The 
child's task then is to place beside the picture the 
colors found in it and the written name of each 
color. 



SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 139 

Building Mother Goose rhymes 

In each envelope to be passed to the pupils is placed 
a Mother Goose picture together with a dissected 
rhyme describing it. It is the task of each pupil who 
receives an envelope to discover the rhyme and then 
to work it out with the word cards. 

Arranging words by sounds 

Words upon which the pupils have been working 
in their lessons in phonics are put into envelopes. 
These are distributed to the pupils and directions are 
given them to group the words by initial sound or by 
end rhyme, as follows : — 

baby red sing man 

ball run so more 

blue rock see my 

play tree cry run 

say see fly fun 

may bee try gun 

Compositions 

Original compositions by pupils need to be care- 
fully supervised by the teacher. It is only by guard- 
ing against mistakes that the formation of bad habits 
can be prevented. For this reason the teachers in the 
first and second grades should be discriminating in 
their use of this form of activity for seat work. They 
should seek exercises that are stimulating and profit- 



140 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

able, but which do not require the use of words that 
the pupils have not mastered. 

Filling in blanks 

A group of sentences on some topic that the pupils 

are studying is written on the blackboard with the 

omission of one or more important words in each. 

The missing words are arranged out of sequence in a 

column at the right. The children copy the sentences, 

writing in the words that are missing. The following 

shows the form in which the work is written at the 

blackboard : — 

An boy lived in a wigwam forest 

that stood in a near a lake. canoe 

On the shore lay his made wigwam 

of . In the forest another birch bark 

could be seen. This was deer skin 

covered with . Indian. 

Describing pictures 

Sets of cards are made upon which attractive pic- 
tures are pasted and words and questions are written. 
One picture might be that of two children sitting on a 
garden wall looking down at something on the ground 
that is not included in the picture. Beneath the pic- 
ture would be written the new words needed by the 
children in describing the picture together with ques- 
tions to be answered, as follows : — 

garden Where are the children sitting? 

looking What are they doing? 

hopping What do you think they see? 



SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 141 

The sentences that the pupils would be expected to 
write are : — 

The children are sitting on a garden wall. 

They are looking down. 

I think they see a toad hopping about. 

Word and Sentence Drills — Grades III and IV 

Preparing for an exercise in dictation 

As a class exercise the pupils compose orally a 
group of sentences, or a paragraph on some topic 
that they are studying. As each gives a sentence it is 
written on the blackboard. The pupils criticize their 
own work; and then, as seat work, the pupils copy 
and study the exercise that they may write it cor- 
rectly later in the day when the teacher dictates it 
to them. In this exercise it sometimes helps to im- 
press the correct form on the minds of the pupils if 
particular difficulties, such as silent letters, double 
consonants, capitals, and marks of punctuation, are 
underlined with colored chalk. 

Filling in blanks 
For a description of this exercise see page 140. 

Sentence puzzles 

The following exercise is enjoyed by the pupils and 
is profitable to use occasionally. Write, in columns, 
words out of which sentences can be built; for ex- 
ample, the following: — 



142 



THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 



chicks 


little 


their 


if 


followed 


no 


kept 


would 


The 


Each 


All 


each 


was 


acorn 


little 


"Peep! Peep! 


downy 


was 


to 


behind 


by 


chick 


the 


little 


partridge 


l^ger 


ones 


one 


twelve 


an 


mother 


cry 


mother 


than 


close 


left 



The sentences which pupils could build from these 

words are : — 

The mother partridge was followed by twelve downy chicks. 

Each little partridge was no larger than an acorn. 

All the little ones kept close to their mother. 

"Peep! Peep!" each little one would cry if left behind. 

A hygiene puzzle 

Pictures showing such hygienic processes as brush- 
ing the teeth or washing the hair are cut from ad- 
vertisements by the pupils and brought to school. 
The best pictures are chosen, mounted on cardboard, 
and placed in envelopes together with cut-up sen- 
tences. An envelope is given to each pupil that he 
may arrange the words into such sentences as, To look 
welly I must brush my teeth. Brush up and down and 
from side to side. These puzzles, of course, should not 
be given before the pupils have had the rules as part 
of a lesson in hygiene. 

Describing pictures 

As in the exercise on page 140, attractive pictures 
are mounted on cardboard. Underneath each is a 



SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 143 

list of new words needed to describe the picture. The 
pupils are expected to write original sentences based 
upon the picture. 

Selecting words ^ 

As a part of their word study a class will find it 
profitable in going over a reading lesson to make a 
list of all the words that are names, of all those that 
describe objects, and of all the words that show action. 

Seat Work in Number — Grades I and II 

The first work in number should be kept informal 
and concrete. Not until the children have built up from 
experience a good foundation for the work should any- 
so-called "lessons" be given or any seat work at- 
tempted. Counting, measuring, recognizing the num- 
ber of objects in a group, should be introduced as the 
schoolroom occupations require them, but none of 
this work should be forced upon the children. 

The following exercises presuppose that the pupils 
have passed through this early stage and are ready to 
study number relations and symbols. 

Making toy money 

After the pupils have been taught to recognize the 

cent, nickel, and dime, they will enjoy making toy 

money from cardboard or paper. To make a really 

satisfactory set of coins the following plan may be 

* For other exercises of this nature both language and spelHng 
books should be consulted. 



144 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

used. For the cent the teacher covers both sides of a 
piece of cardboard with gilt paper; for the dime she 
covers cardboard with silver paper; for the nickel she 
uses lead foil, being particular to see that her glue is 
strong and that it covers every portion of the card- 
board. This manufactured gilt, silver, and lead card- 
board the teacher cuts into strips a little less than an 
inch wide and about twelve inches long. She dis- 
tributes the strips, one of each kind, to each pupil. 
For models she gives the children circles of cardboard 
a trifle smaller than the real coins. These the pupils 
mark around, then they cut out the coins and place 
them in boxes or envelopes provided for the purpose. 
No figures are written on the coins. 

Counting out coins 

After the work in coins has made some advance and 
the pupils have learned the figures from 1 to 10, they 
may be taught to arrange their coins from blackboard 
directions, as follows : — 

2 cents 1 nickel 3 dimes 

3 cents 4 nickels 5 dimes 
5 cents 2 nickels 1 dime 

4 cents 3 nickels 4 dimes 

Later the teacher may write on the blackboard a 
price fist, and, after a drill in class, the pupils may 
arrange in order the coins necessary to pay for each 
article. The price list might consist of: a 5-cent ball, 
a 3-cent pencil, a 2-cent eraser, a 4-cent top, a 10-cent 
doll, and an 8-cent book. At the end of the period, the 



SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 145 



3 



teacher should go up and down the aisles carefully 
noting the work. 

Matching cards 

To assist pupils in mastering number symbols, cards 
one by one and one half inches are made of oak tag. 
On one set of cards the figures from 1 to 10 are written. 
On another set, a variety of objects is drawn, such as 
a group of dots, a group of lines, a group of stars, or a 
group of squares, each corresponding to a number in 
the first set. 

The children arrange the cards 
so that, for example, the card 
upon which the figure 3 is written 
lies beside the card upon which 
three objects have been drawn. 
After arranging the cards, each pupil makes a set of his 
own for home play. In place of the cards with the 
drawings the pupils may be given cards of squared 
paper ^ upon which to color given numbers of squares, 
or they may place pegs or other counters beside the 
cards upon which the figures have been written. 

Playing games mth domino cards 
While the pupils are in the concrete stage of learn- 
ing, they find both pleasure and profit in working with 
tiny domino cards. Cards one by two inches or one 
and one half by three inches are cut out of oak tag. 
Pin pricks are made by the teacher to indicate where 

^ Manila paper may be purchased ruled into squares measuring 
on each side one, three-fourths, one-half, or one-fourth inch. 



146 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

the dots are to be placed. Each pupil marks in the 
dots on a set of cards. He then uses them (a) for match- 
ing sums. He places in a row all the cards that contain 
the same number of spots. In one row, he places the 
dominoes containing 3 and 3, 4 and 2, 5 and 1, and 
6 and 0; in another row he places 4 and 3, 5 and 2, 6 and 
1, and so on. Then he copies the sums. He may use 
the cards (6) for matching the ends of the dominoes and 
finding all the sums possible in that way, namely: 1-1, 
3-3, 4-4, 5-5, and 6-6; or (c) in placing the cards end 
to end and copying the sums found. After playing 
these simple games at school the pupils should be 
encouraged to take the domino cards home and to play 
with them there. 

Grouping units 

Following the exercises and games in recognizing 
small single groups of objects, just described, columns 

^ . ^ of the kind shown at the left may be written 

2 + 2 

AA.O on the blackboard. At their seats pupils 

3 _l_ 2 should arrange counters in groups to corre- 
2 2's spond with these problems, as 11 11; 
2 + 5 1111 11. This exercise, which is intended 
2 + 2 + 2 for the latter part of the first grade and 
^"^^ the first part of the second grade, is basic 

^ work for the finding of sums and products; 

4 + 4 

, but no answers should be required. The 

exercise should be continued day after day, 
varying both the problems and objects or counters 



SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 147 



used. Toy money may be used, wooden pegs, squared 
paper, or some other material that is adapted to 
the work. When using the 
squared paper, pupils may 
indicate the problem with 
colored crayons. For exam- 
ple, 3+2 might be repre- 
sented by coloring 3 squares 
green and 2 squares yellow; ^ + 4 by coloring 2 squares 
green and 4 yellow. 




Finding sums and products 

When the pupils have acquired the abihty to group 
units as described above, answers may be called for, 
first orally and then in writing. The 
teacher writes at the blackboard a series 
of problems similar to that shown here. 
The pupils arrange their counters on the 
left side of their desks, leaving spaces at 
the right for the use of paper and pencil. 
Then they copy the problems and their 
answers on paper. This is another device 
to use day after day until the children are 
ready to leave concrete work and to think the number 
combinations abstractly. 

To give variety and meaning to the work the pupils 
may be asked occasionaUy to make "puzzles" for 
the other children to solve. These may be made by 
coloring squares on squared paper, or by making large 



4-f2 = 

3 + 3 = 

4 + 3 = 

4 + 4 = 
g 2's = 
2 3's = 

2 4's = 

5 + 3 = 



148 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

domino cards. If a pupil wishes to give the problem 
4 +5 = ? to his classmate, he prepares a card by 
drawing on one side 4 circles, squares, or lines, adja- 
cent to 5 circles, squares, or lines and by writing on 
the other 4 + 5 = ? 

Finding differences 

The first work in subtraction is profitably given as 
a form of addition. After the pupils have learned a 
o I p_t number of sums, a question mark may be 
3-f ? =4 substituted for one of the numbers making 

3 + ? = 6 the sum. The problem is to find the missing 
2 + .? =4 number; 2+3 =6 is written 2+? =5. The 

4 + ?=6 missing number maybe found by the use 

• of concrete material, if necessary. 

Later on the minus sign may be used, but, as shown 
below, the problems should first be expressed as prob- 
lems in additive subtraction. 

4 + ?=7 7 — 4 = ? 
2 + ?=3 3 — 2 = ? 

5 +? = 8, etc. 8 — 5 = ?, etc. 

Finding quotients 

p o» = 4, Just as the first work in subtraction is 

? 3's = 6 Diost easily mastered in its relation to 

p 2's = 6 addition so the first work in division is 

? 4's = 8 most easily grasped if it is taken as a new 

? 5's = 10 way of looking upon familiar facts in 

? 2|s = 8 multiplication. The problem S 2's = f is 

^ ^'^=^ turned about to ? 2's = 6. The pupils 



SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 149 

may be asked to find the missing number in problems 
similar to those shown at the left. Counters may be 
used when they are needed. The completed table is 
written on paper. 

Analyzing numbers 
After progress has been made in finding sums, 
products, diflFerences, and quotients, difi'erent numbers 
may be given to be analyzed. If on one day the num- 
ber chosen is 8, the pupils will be able either to think 
out, or to find out with the counters, such facts as: 
1+7=8, 2+6 = 8, 3+5=8, 4 +4= 8,5 +3 =8, 
6+2=8, 7+1=8, 2 4's=8, 4 2's = 8, 8-1=7, 
8-2 =6, 8-3=5, 8-4=4, 8-5=3, 8-6=2, 
8 - 7 = 1, i of 8 = 4, I of 8 = 2. 

Reviewing combinations 
(1) A list of combinations that form two or three 
different numbers is written on the board. The pupils 
at their seats copy the combinations, arranging them 
in columns under the number which is the sum of each. 
The two columns below at the left show what might 
be written on the board; the three columns at the 
right, the arrangement made by the pupils. 



8+4 


6+6 


10 


11 


12 


4+6 


5+5 


4+6 


8+3 


8+4 


5+7 


8+2 


9+1 


9+2 


9+3 


8+3 


9+2 


5+5 


7+4 


7+5 


9+1 


7+4 


8+2 


6+5 


6+6 


9+3 


7+3 


7+3 






7+5 


6+5 









150 



THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 



(2) On cards four by three inches are written sums 
and differences with one number missing. On different 
sets of half -inch squares are written the numbers from 
1 to 12. The children use the small squares to fill in 
the missing numbers on the large cards. The cards 
used are shown below: — 



4 + 


= 10 


7-4 = 


6 + 


= 8 


9-5 = 


2 + 


= 7 


10-2 = 


5 + 


= 10 


8-5 = 


4 + 


= 9 


10-6 = 


3 + 


= 10 


9-4 = 


etc. 




etc. 



3 +4 = 


5 + 1 = 


3 + 3 = 


4+4 = 


2 4's = 


3 2's = 


5+5 == 


4 + 5 = 


3+4 = 


5 +3 = 


etc. 



Front 



etc. 



Self-testing drill cards 

Cards are cut about 
two and one half inches 
wide and about eight 
inches long. The length 
will depend upon the 
length of the number 
paper used. On one side 
of these cards are writ- 
ten problems to be solved; 
on the other side the an- 
swers. Each child is given 
a set of these cards. As 
soon as he finishes the 




Back 



SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 151 

problems on a card, he turns it over and corrects his 
answers. To save making a great many sets of cards 
eight duplicates of each may be made, using different 
colored cards, as: Red 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; Blue 1, 
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; Green 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; etc. In 
conducting this exercise, the pupils should be shown 
that the game is to write the answers before turning 
the cards over. If no record is kept of this work 
there will be less temptation to copy answers. 

Measurements 

Directions may be written at the blackboard for seat 

work in drawing lines and rectangles. For example: 

Draw a 4-inch line. Draw a line one half as long. 
Draw an oblong 6 inches long and 1 inch wide. Color one 
half of it green. 

But in general this work is more effective when 

related to the manual work than when given in formal 

exercises. 

Carrying out a project 

In preparing for a school store, in furnishing a play- 
house, or in carrying out any other similar project, 
there are many things that may be done as seat work. 
For suggestions see pages 153, 155, and 156. 

Seat Work in Number — Grades III and IV 

The fundamental number facts 

Pupils in the third and fourth grades are able to 
work out number relations by themselves, to analyze 



152 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

numbers, to rebuild tables that they have studied, 
to find answers to problems written on the board or 
taken from a textbook. As an aid in this work it will 
be found helpful to use test cards similar to those de- 
scribed on page 150. After using these, each child 
should make a list of the number facts upon which he 
is weakest and concentrate his attention on them. 

The fundamental processes 

Problems involving long columns of figures should 
be avoided as seat work, not only because they cause 
eye-strain, but because they give the pupil an oppor- 
tunity to form the habit of finger-counting and to 
become sluggish in his thinking. Problems in addition, 
subtraction, multiplication, and division, used as seat 
work should be simple and well within the pupil's 
ability. The purpose of these reviews is to keep the 
combinations of numbers fresh in the pupils' minds. 
Only those problems should be given that the pupils 
can do automatically. 

Solving problems 
The study of problems where no answers are writ- 
ten gives excellent results as seat work. A set of prob- 
lems may be taken from a textbook, written on the 
blackboard, or printed on slips of paper. The children 
think through the problems and then indicate the 
solution of each. For example, the solution of a prob- 
lem requiring the perimeter of an 18-inch square 
would be indicated in this way, 18 in. X Ih = ? 



SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 153 

Making original problems 

Price lists or other data for problems are written 
on the blackboard, and the pupils are asked to make 
problems on, for example, the cost of two articles, the 
amount of change to be received from a dollar bill in 
buying either one, two, or three articles. The pupils 
may write their work either in the form of questions 
such as, "How much must I pay for a baseball costing 
$1.25 and a bat costing 50^?" or as statements such 
as, "For a baseball costing $1.25 and a bat costing 
50^, I must pay $1.75." 

Carrying out a project 

In carrying out almost any school project there are 
usually several things that may be done as seat work 
in number. When plans are being made for a home 
or school garden, pupils may make individual studies 
at their seats, drawing diagrams of plots and divisions 
of plots to easy scale. If a ticket office is the project 
under consideration, the pupils may make tickets, 
and practice making change with paper money of their 
own making. For a grocery store, there are labels to 
be made, paper bags to be constructed, and bills to 
be made out. 

Manual Work — Grades I and II 

There is a considerable variety of what is gener- 
ally called manual work that can be done by the 
pupils in school at their seats. Much of this must be 



154 



THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 



• ^ 1 ■ I Q --.--• 



directed and closely supervised, but some can be done 
independently by the pupils. Preparations for a holi- 
day or other festivity, devices for games, toys for 
^ home play, the ma- 

^ terial to be used in 

the school lessons, or 
in the decoration of 
the schoolroom — all 
3 of these may furnish 
motives and problems 
for seat work. 

Making toy furniture 

For a settle a square 
of stiff drawing paper 
is folded into sixteen 
small squares and slit 
as indicated by the 
dotted lines in Fig. 1. 

The paper is then 
folded along AB so as 
to form a rectangle 
two squares wide and 
four squares long. The 
point A is then folded 
over to the point c and 
the point B to the point 
d as shown in Fig. 2. 
The rectangle cdfe becomes the seat of the settle 



FlfiUFlE: X 




A 


<■ 


A 


^ 


t 


2 


f 


h 



F"l(»URE:3 




SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 155 

by folding the lower four squares up and then folding 
the squares g and h to meet the sides that are folded 
in to form the arms. A little paste will hold the 
settle together. (See Figure 3). 

A chair is made from this same model by using a 
rectangle three squares wide and four squares long in 
place of the rectangle four squares by four squares. 
A bed may be made by using one settle for the head- 
board and one for the footboard and by pasting be- 
tween them a rectangle of paper made to fit the right 
space. A table may be made by inverting a box after 
cutting out legs with cross supports. 

This particular type of paper furniture is useful 
because it is easily made and because it is stable. A 
still more satisfactory type is made of small card- 
board boxes carefully selected so as to be of the right 
shape and size. To these boxes are glued pieces of 
cardboard for the backs of chairs, the ends of beds, 
etc., but this form is difficult to make. 

Another exercise that is of value is that of ask- 
ing the children to reproduce in paper the furniture 
at home. They will need some help in this, but the 
project nevertheless will not only make the children 
observant but it will bring out their inventiveness. 

The furniture made may be used either for furnish- 
ing a playhouse or it may be used in playing store. 

Weaving on cardboard looms 

For weaving mats for a playhouse looms may be 
made from the cardboard backs of number paper pads 



156 



THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 



081901 



UM 



or from other pieces of cardboard six by eight inches. 
Slits one half inch long are made at distances one half 
inch apart across the ends of the cardboard. 

The loom is then strung with a coarse jute twine 
in an attractive color. The string is made to go up 
and down on one side of the 
cardboard only. The children 
use coarse weaving needles 
threaded with jute for the 
weaving, going back and forth 
across the warp. Striped bor- 
ders in harmonious colors 
may be woven at each end. 
Caution should be taken by 
the children so as not to let the rug become narrow 
near the middle. A doll's hammock is made in a 
similar way by increasing the length of the warp. 

Round looms on the same principle as that above 
may be used for weaving mats, dolls' tam-o'-shanters, 
and doll's hats. The circumference of a cardboard 
circle is notched at convenient distances and the 
loom strung so that the warp forms the radii of the 
circle.^ 

Construction work for playing store 

Besides making toy money for playing store (see 
page 143), the pupils may make toys and other articles 

^ For further exercises in weaving, consult Primary Handwork, 
by Wilhelmina Seegmiller, published by Atkinson, Mentzer & 
Grover. 



SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 157 

to be used as merchandise, also paper bags, and coin 
boxes. For a paper-doll store, dolls representing the 
different nations may be cut out and their costumes 
appropriately colored. For a toy store, windmills, 
boats, drinking cups, boxes, and envelopes may be 
folded from paper. For a furniture store, paper fur- 
niture similar to that on page 154 may be made. To 
prevent confusion in buying the number of different 
articles used at a time should be hmited to a very few. 
It is well to have the pupils make each article so 
that after a number have been chosen for the school 
store all the others that have been neatly made may 
be taken home for play there. 

The toy menagerie 

For making a toy menagerie cardboard patterns 
of elephants, giraffes, tigers, lions, and other animals 
should be given the pupils to trace around on heavy 
drawing paper. Pictures of the animals should be 
placed in sight so that the pupils may show with wax 
crayons the coloring and markings of the animals. 
To make the animals stand stably they may be glued 
to small blocks of wood. 

Illustrating stories 

Many of the fables, myths, old nursery tales, and 
Mother Goose rhymes suggest illustrative work in 
paper-cutting; in drawing with colored chalk, wax 
crayons, or charcoal; and in modeling in clay or 



158 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

plasticine. Stories suitable for this purpose are The 
Fox and the Stork, The Origin of the Redheaded Wood- 
pecker, Little Red Riding Hood, The Three Bears, and 
Little Miss Muffet. The teacher should watch for 
opportunities in connection with her story-telling and 
the reading lessons, and, when the conditions seem 
right, suggest the making of pictures. The success of 
the work will depend in a measure on the ability of 
the teacher to arouse the imagination of the pupils. 
Often this can be done by a few words of conversation 
during which she talks over the story with the chil- 
dren. 

The primary reading books are generally profusely 
illustrated. Pupils may select a simple detail of a 
picture, sometimes with the help of the teacher, and 
make copies of it with pencil or crayon. Outline pic- 
tures are particularly suited to this. Crude results 
should not discourage the teacher. 

It helps at times to hektograph outlines of pictures 
for the children to color and complete. For the story 
of Piccola the outline of a wooden shoe with a bird 
peeping from it could be hektographed; for the story 
of Peter Rabbit a little rabbit in a coat running toward 
a watering can. 

Making posters 

At Christmas time a silhouette of a fir tree may be 
cut from green paper by the teacher and mounted. For 
this tree, which is made about eighteen inches high. 



SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES 159 

the pupils cut from paper tiny candles, oranges, apples, 
horns, dolls, and other decorations and toys. These 
they paste on the tree using gilt stars for the lights 
on the candles. The work is done cooperatively, each 
pupil choosing the things that he wishes to make. 

Picture 'puzzles 

Attractive pictures related to nature study or some 
other line of school or home interest are pasted on 
heavy cardboard and pressed so that they do not curl. 
Each picture is then cut into differently shaped pieces 
and placed in a box by itself. The task of each pupil 
is to take one of the puzzles and fit it together on his 
desk. When inspecting the work the teacher should 
note the neatness with which the parts have been 
placed together. 

Manual Work — Grades III and IV 

Decorating a schoolroom vnth a frieze 

In connection with the work in literature, geog- 
raphy, or nature study, friezes may be made for the 
schoolroom. These may be fitted to a space above 
some blackboard and should be about half a yard 
wide. Ingrain wall paper of a dull blue may be used 
as the foundation of the picture and a soft green, if 
appropriate, for the foreground. On these are pasted 
figures cut from paper of different colors and care- 
fully grouped. The scene represented may be a fa- 



160 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

miliar one, such as that of a flock of birds alighting 
on telegraph wires, or a farm scene; or it may be an 
Indian village, a scene in Holland, a Japanese gar- 
den, or Eskimos with their igloos and dog teams. As 
seat work the pupils cut out trees, houses, people, 
birds, and other figures to be used; and then, as part 
of a drawing lesson, they plan the grouping. The pu- 
pils are careful, for example, to choose the figures 
best adapted to the picture, and then, that the per- 
spective may be right, to place the smaller objects 
in the background and the larger ones in the fore- 
ground. 

Making transparencies 

Another form of decoration which pupils enjoy is 
the making of transparencies for the schoolroom win- 
dows. These are made of sheets of waxed paper 
framed in with dark cardboard. 
Between two sheets are pasted 
^v^ % figures cut from gayly colored 

Ni^ I /^^s. 1 P^P^r by l^he pupils. One effec- 
^-7>/ ^^ j tive transparency is made in 
xiutT^/ *^^ shape of a fish bowl framed 
'^^^ ^/^ in by cardboard, that is, the 
silhouette of a fish bowl about 
ten inches in diameter is cut out of a sheet of card- 
board and waxed paper doubled is pasted into the 
cardboard to take its place. Between the sheets gold 
fish, cut out by the children, are pasted swimming 




SEAT WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES t61 

in various directions.^ Duplicate transparencies are 
made for the various windows thus making a room 
look very festive. 

A night scene may be made by coloring Japanese 
rice paper a dark blue and by pasting in the foreground 
the silhouettes cut from black paper of a church 
steeple, houses, and trees. To represent the stars pin 
pricks are made. 

Making a scrapbook 

Pictures cut from the advertising matter in our 
best magazines and from old catalogues may be used 
for this purpose. The scrapbook which the pupils 
choose to make may be a farm book showing pictures 
of chickens, pigs, horses, cattle, a field of grain and 
men reaping; it may be a garden book showing the 
different kinds of flowers and vegetables, and the 
different tools used in a garden; it may be a book 
of transportation showing canoes, steamships, freight 
trains, auto trucks, wagons, airships, and other means 
of transportation; it may be an automobile book; 
or it may follow some other interest of the pupils. 

After showing the pupils how to cut out pictures 
and how to arrange them, and then how to paste them 
on a page neatly, the leaves of the scrap book may be 
made one at a time, or all the pictures may be col- 

^ For this design the author is indebted to Miss Ethel V. Knight, 
of the Training School of the State Normal School, at Salem, Massa- 
chusetts. 



162 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

lected and the pasting be done at one time. In gen- 
eral it is better to have a task of this sort pushed 
through while enthusiasm lasts rather than to let it 
drag on many days. 

Work done to measurements 

Beside the free-cutting described above, work re- 
quiring exact measurements may be done as seat 
work. To this class belong Christmas cards and other 
gifts, calendars, valentines, games, and number puz- 
zles. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

1. On the educational value of handwork: — 

a. Schools of To-morrow. John and Evelyn Dewey. 
6. The Place of Industries in Elementary Education. Katha- 
rine E. Dopp. 

2. On pa'per-cutting: — 

Seat Work and Industrial Occupations. Mary A. Oilman 
and Elizabeth B. Williams. 

3. On weaving: — 

Primary Handwork. Wilhelmina Seegmiller. 



CHAPTER V 

DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 

I AM sure that teachers want to know how to teach 
drawing well. I know that they delight to teach it 
when they are sure of their subject-matter. When 
boys and girls are asked to do drawing work which is 
reasonable and right to them, they respond with such 
a working enthusiasm and real desire that the teacher 
must join in spirit. No other subject has more power 
to bring forth the very best effort which a class is 
capable of making. But all desire and enthusiasm will 
evaporate like the morning mist unless the teacher 
knows a right solution of her drawing problem. 

Therefore, we shall devote the larger part of our 
text and illustrations ^ to a definite program — the 
consideration of good drawing and designs and how 
to make them. As a second consideration, we shall 
discuss methods of teaching drawing. There is a some- 
what widespread belief that the methods of teaching 
drawing belong in a realm to which only the elect have 
admittance. It is not so. One should teach drawing 
as one should teach spelling, or arithmetic, or other 
school subject. This will be made plain in the pages 
following. 

^ The kind of paper used in this book necessitates the use only 
of pen-and-ink drawings as illustrations. 



164 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Nature Drawing 

The most evident, immediate aim of a lesson in 
nature drawing is to train the eye to see. To draw 
successfully from a spray or plant, one must scruti- 
nize it carefully. (For this reason noted scientists in- 
sist that their students draw in detail every natural 
form studied.) A superficial glance now and then 
will result always in inaccurate drawing. The second 
aim in nature drawing is to have the hand record 
what the eye sees — to educate the muscles of the 
hand to express a thought. 

These two aims apply to all kinds of drawing,^ and 
may be so understood if not repeated in this text. 
Both could be accomplished as well by drawing jack- 
knives, chairs, or handbags. But there must be an- 
other purpose in drawing from nature, namely, to 
open the child's eyes to some new beauty. This is 

^ The best reference work for nature drawing, or any other kind 
of school drawing, design, or crafts work whatsoever, is The School 
Arts Magazine, pubHshed by The Davis Press, Worcester, Massachu- 
setts. Back numbers in the form of bound vokimes may be found 
in many libraries. These volumes contain an almost unbelievable 
amount of material related to school arts and crafts. The text has 
been written by the best teachers in the country. The illustrations 
are reproductions of excellent work by children in all grades and 
the high school, art school, and college at home and abroad, and of 
the best arts and crafts work, drawing, painting, architecture, and 
sculpture, from everywhere. No matter what your drawing or 
design problem may be, you will find the solution in these books. 

Portions of the text of this book, relating to drawing and design, 
and some of the illustrations, have previously appeared in The 
School Arts Magazine, and are here reproduced by permission. 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 165 

the real purpose of nature drawing, for it surely in- 
cludes all others. The world of nature is a world of 
beautiful things. '^We are immersed in beauty, but our 
eyes have no clear vision.'' Everywhere nature offers 
us enjoyment of the most uphfting kind, if we have 
eyes which know how to see. 

The curve beautiful 

In all drawing and design work the teacher ought 
to know the difference between a bent line and a 
beautiful curve. It is not intended that the explana- 
tion of curvature which follows should be presented as 
a whole to any class of children. This is background 
knowledge which is constantly needed as reference ma- 
terial by teachers. Teachers should be able to draw 
a beautiful curve, and they should be ready to show 
how an ugly line may be transformed into one gov- 
erned by law. 

Let us take a group of words — a village, peaceful, 
serene, quiet, simple. Think over the meaning of these 
words and see if you do not unconsciously frame 
other words during the process of thinking. The other 
words very likely will be order, beauty, fitness, because 
the race has learned by experience that the latter 
qualities are necessary to anything which is peace- 
ful, serene, quiet, simple. 

The beautiful thing is satisfactory because it is 
orderly, and back of the order, somewhere, there is 
the law which makes the order. Let us apply this 



166 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

thought to the drawing of curves, that we may draw 
with understanding. It is manifestly impossible to 
draw well otherwise. 

The problem of the beautiful curve is easily grasped. 
We will begin with the circle. (See Plate I.) A pencil, 
a piece of string, and threo pins are all that is neces- 
sary for these experiments in school or at home. Have 
you these things at hand.^ The only real way to learn 
to draw is to draw ! Place the pin through a sheet of 
paper, tie the string so as to make one continuous 
piece, pass the pencil through one part of the loop, and 
slip another part of the loop over the pin. Push the 
pencil as far away from the pin*as the string will allow 
when pulled tight, and keep moving any way the 
string will permit. The resultant line will be a circle, 
governed by a very evident law, which is expressed 
in the usual definition of a circle. Now, if the pin pulls 
out, or the pencil slips, the law is broken, and that 
perfection which is the outcome of the reign of law is 
destroyed. 

With two pins and the same string try the experi- 
ment of drawing the ellipse. The law is as easily seen 
as with the circle, but the movement of the pencil is 
governed by two centers, or foci. With three pins, 
the perfect oval may be drawn. These are the only 
curvilinear figures which we need consider in school, 
and any child in the intermediate grades can under- 
stand them as lawful curves. 

All three of these curves are consistent in their 



THE CQRVE BEAUTlfUL-QOVERnED BY LAW 




FlQ-7 



/'-'< 



Fia-8 






■t^ 1 



Plate I 



168 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

movements. The circle is less interesting than the 
others because it is more monotonous. The oval is 
generally regarded as the most beautiful because it 
has more variety; yet remember always that this 
variety is entirely orderly and under the rule of law. 
Nature seems to understand this differentiation; the 
human head, body, arm and leg portions, the hand 
and foot, in the ideal are based on the oval outline, 
whereas hidden away in the cross-section may be 
found the circle. So it is with the fruits and vege- 
tables, plants and animal life, also in the things made 
by man, as vases, capitals, domes, etc. The artist 
draws the oval head, the caricaturist draws the round 
one. The former is distinguished, the latter is com- 
monplace. 

Thus far we have discussed facts which are more 
or less familiar to all of us. Now we will pass on to the 
consideration of the beauty which may be in a single 
line. Figure 8, Plate I, is an illustration in miniature 
of a football practice field with the squads of players 
at work. Every now and then the ball goes soaring 
through the air, sometimes just skimming the earth, 
again shooting high above the players. It will be no- 
ticed that, whatever its direction, the line of flight is 
always of the same character. This line at first seems 
to be straight, so far as we can see; then, gradually, 
it bends more and more, until, apparently, all the 
vitality has gone from its movement, and the ball 
drops to earth. This is the experience which every 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 169 

football might write if it could. It is started into the 
air suddenly and by a strong force which sends it up- 
ward, but the instant it leaves the ground another 
force, the force of gravity, opposes the force which 
generates its movement. Little by little the force of 
gravity overcomes the force or movement of the line 
itself; as the one weakens, the other seems to gain in 
strength, hence there is a continual change in the line's 
curvature from, the beginning to the end. This pro- 
duces a wonderful line, never repeating itself, always 
governed by law, and exquisitely suggesting the tem- 
pering of force through grace. A straight line indi- 
cates vigor and strength, a curve shows that another 
force has played upon the straight line to change and 
modify its force and intended flight. When we have 
in a line this combination of strength and force on the 
one hand, and of its gradual yielding to grace and 
delicacy on the other, we have the most beautiful 
curve that it is possible to draw. This is a curve 
which we ought to know. You cannot know it through 
a formal introduction, you must become intimately 
acquainted with it. Draw it with a free, swinging arm 
movement; the hne is a free one, it cannot be drawn 
with a needle-and-thread movement of the fingers. 
Try it repeatedly; it will not be conquered at once, 
it is too subtle. With every trial, your understand- 
ing of the beauty of this line, and your interest and 
appreciation will increase. 

This "Infinite Curve," as Mr. Ruskin called it, or 



170 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

the "Curve of Force," as Mr. Bailey aptly calls it, is 
to be found everywhere in nature. It is the line which 
nature invariably employs when strength is needed, 
as in all upright growths. The drawings on Plates 
II and III are all made from plant forms. Notice 
how frequently this subtle curve appears. Look for 
it in these drawings as you would look for the hidden 
face in the puzzle picture. Later, in your drawings, 
select a plant form which is more beautiful than its 
neighbor because it has more of these curves in it. 
When you draw the plant use your best energy to 
reproduce these exquisite lines which nature suggests. 
You will note that I say "suggest," for oftentimes 
Nature only suggests perfection (as a matter of fact, 
as every artist knows, this is all that she generally 
does). It remains for us to accept Nature's sugges- 
tion and render the perfect line. 

In object drawing, in the signing of an initial let- 
ter or monogram, in the outline of a picture or calen- 
dar mount, in the curve of a shelf bracket (see Plate 
IV), and all through our school drawing, if we are to 
produce results which completely satisfy, we must 
know the " Curve Beautiful." 

Drawing from nature 

It is quite hopeless to expect children to make 
drawings which may be termed beautiful when the 
sprays or plants from which they draw are common- 
place, monotonous, or ugly. 




Plate II 




Plate III 





( (^ 


■^^ ' 1 


(^ 


V 


c^- 


-A 





Plate IV 




no 1 




riQG 






nQ-3 




na-4 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 175 

A drawing of trees arranged as in Plate V, Figure 1, 
gives a result much the same as that produced in 
music when one strikes at regular intervals but one 
note on the piano. In making an interesting picture, 
it is better to use several forms rather than to repeat 
one monotonously. 

The artist would pass by a scene similar to Figure 1 
and perhaps continue until he found a subject more 
like Figure 2, where the eye is not wearied by the 
repetition of one form at regular intervals. The child 
who brings to school a spray of the general character 
shown in Figure 3, is handicapped at the start. It is 
better to select a plant form which has variety in the 
size, shape, color, and arrangement of its elements. 
Such growths are abundant by the roadside; for ex- 
ample, woodbine, goldenrod, grapevine, seed pods, 
etc. 

But Httle ke^n seeing is required to draw Figure 3. 
The child looks at one leaf, the others are just the 
same and are drawn from memory. Notice in the 
sketch of the woodbine. Figure 4, how varied are the 
leaves in size and position, how the stem changes its 
direction at every joint, how the berries grow singly 
and in groups, and if we are to work in color, how much 
more interesting is the varied color, — the green and 
red leaves, the red stems, and the blue berries, — than 
the repetition of the same leaf in the same color. Not 
only is the woodbine better when drawn, but the 
children will draw it better, because there is more of 



176 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

interest to see. The untrained mind akvays sees strong 
contrasts much more readily than slight differences. 
Therefore the wise teacher of children will see that the 
class has plants to draw from which offer bold variations 
of line, masses, and color. 

You may have watched a class of beginners in na- 
ture drawing. The pupils are asked to place their 
sprays on drawing-paper on the left side of their 
desks. This being done, a uniform movement is no- 
ticed all over the room — the pupils are "ironing 
out" their plants. Each leaf is carefully separated 
from its neighbors, all wrinkles are removed, and then 
with the palm of the hand, any remaining spirit which 
the plant may possess is quietly and firmly crushed. 
Perhaps some small boy, more discerning than the 
others, will slip his spray into a book and sit on the 
combination for a moment. All are working for the 
same end — getting their plants "ready to draw." 
The results on paper will be so many maps of the van- 
quished plant, drawings without the life, vitality, 
grace or charm of the living things. Therefore, we 
should take particular care to avoid this artificial 
preparation. Keep the natural growth as nearly per- 
fect as possible. 

Place the spray upon the paper at the left (the 
shape and color are best seen when placed on paper 
rather than on the brown desk), so that the axis or 
general movement of the spray is vertical if an up- 
right spray is to be drawn, Plate V, Figure 5, or hori- 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 177 

zontal when the growth of the spray is from side to 
side, Plate V, Figure 6, as with the barberry or grape- 
vine. This is very important and often not under- 
stood by teachers. 

There are at least two reasons for this rather dog- 
matic direction as to placing sprays and drawings 
on paper. When we place a spray slantwise across a 
paper, the movement of the spray does not agree with 
the edges of the paper or with its axis. The spray is 
not orderly in its placing with regard to the given 
conditions imposed by the paper itself. We may hang 
a picture at any angle from an apple tree, and are not 
jarred by the result, but when we hang a picture upon 
a wall, it must have vertical and horizontal edges to 
agree with the conditions inherent in the room, the 
dominating lines of which are vertical and horizontal. 

To be sure, plants sway this way and that in the 
field, — they are not generally vertical or horizontal; 
but when we put plant or drawing on paper we have 
to make nature conform somewhat to the artificial 
surroundings. Order is heaven's first law. Yes, the 
best of artists draw plants slanting on the paper; but 
notice, please, that they place an initial or spot of 
some kind where it opposes the movement of the 
plant axis, and forms a letter F or ^ of the entire 
drawing, and thus the axis of the whole becomes ver- 
tical. (Plate VI, Figure 1. See also Figure 2.) 

Another reason which we should know is that na- 
ture's growths are balanced, unless thrown out of 



178 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

balance by wind or other force. (Of course, we are 
now considering vertical growths, and the term bal- 
ance is interpreted to mean that the plant is so poised 
that it would stand upright and not tip over even 
though unsupported by roots or other agencies.) You 
may observe this in tree, bush or plant. Try to stand 
so that you are tipped to one side. Is it easy? Why 
should Nature assume such a difficult position.^ She 
does not. One of her great laws is expressed in the 
word balance. You and I are balanced, Nature is bal- 
anced, we are familiar with ourselves and with Na- 
ture, and therefore we are not pleased with a drawing 
which is not balanced upon the paper. It contradicts 
our experience with ourselves and with Nature. Fine 
art never contradicts Nature, but it does always ex- 
press Nature at her best. 

There is always one principal element or group in 
any work of art — generally termed the center of in- 
terest. Look at any picture upon your schoolroom 
walls. Your eye will go at once to the center of in- 
terest. Ask the children to find the center of interest 
in each of the wall pictures. A good picture, or story, 
or room, or any other good work has one chief center 
of attraction, never two or three. The eye and mind 
cannot see two things at one time. When two forces 
are equally attractive to the eye, or when no one 
force or spot is more attractive than the others, we 
look from one thing to another in a distracted state 
of mind. We find no rest, no satisfaction. 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 179 

Nature seldom gives us good composition; that is to 
say, Nature rarely gives us one perfectly satisfactory 
center of interest. Where Nature fails in this particular, 
the teacher must help. For instance, in our drawing of 
a spray, or group of sprays, we may avoid having two 
groups of foliage of the same size and importance (two 
centers of interest) by picking off a few leaves from 
one of these groups. The eye is further helped to rest 
with ease and pleasure upon the dominant group if 
we emphasize it in some way, as by drawing it even 
more carefully than the other parts, and with stronger 
lines or colors. (Plates II, III, V, and VI.) 

If the drawing lesson is planned, and not a mere 
"happenstance," we have selected a plant to draw 
because there is something about it which interests 
and appeals to us. Whatever that something may 
be, its lines, masses, method of growth, or color, let 
us seize upon this characteristic, never lose sight of 
it, continue to exalt it in our imagination until its 
importance really increases. If we are to draw the 
nasturtium, the superb purity of the color of the 
flowers and the swaying grace of the stems must 
dominate the mind of the school artist, otherwise he 
will gabble of wrinkles, veins, and wormholes. He 
sees not in the true relation of importance. 

Let us set apart five minutes at the beginning of the 
lesson, five minutes for brushing away the haze which 
interferes with our first seeing, five minutes for con- 
centrating the attention upon the elements of interest 



180 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

and beauty which have caused us to select this plant 
as a model. This is best done through the teacher's 
drawing or painting, made before the class, with 
pointed comments. (The teacher who talks through 
the first twenty-five minutes of a drawing lesson and 
allows the remaining ten minutes for the class to free 
itself from her monologue, is oblivious to the fact that 
the program calls for a drawing lesson.) 

Let us single out the important thing we have to 
say in pencil or color, then say it distinctly, keeping 
other things quiet. I have never known a pupil in the 
grades instinctively to express himself through draw- 
ing and show things in their right relationship, in the 
right order of their importance. Without the guid- 
ance of the skillful grade teacher, children's drawings 
stammer incoherently. The method is the same as 
with a reading lesson. When a child drones through 
the sentence from the book, what does the teacher do? 
She shows him. Very well; do the same thing in the 
drawing lesson, only use a pencil or color to show him. 

To show the entire class, paste together three or 
four sheets of nine by twelve paper to make one large 
sheet. Then the teacher should make a drawing large 
enough to be seen from all parts of the room. (See 
Frontispiece.) This is a cheaper method than tq have 
her make a drawing on six by nine paper, and supply 
opera glasses to the children. 

In drawing leaves, particularly foreshortened leaves, 
always draw the midrib first. (Plate VI, Figure 4.) 





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Plate VI 



182 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

No other vein should be drawn by children. The 
midrib is the backbone of the leaf, and the edges of 
the leaf on either side are not difficult to add. The 
near edge should be drawn first. 

The pencil is a good medium to use when we want 
accurate drawing of details. Colored crayons are 
rather better than water-colors for large classes of 
little children; that is to say, the average results will 
be better with crayons. In the fourth grade and above, 
water-colors may be well handled. Brush and ink is 
an admirable medium to use when the aim is to get 
the general mass and movement of the plant. Chil- 
dren naturally draw in outline and fill in with color. 
Sometimes, however, where a mass of color is our 
chief aim, as in goldenrod, it is better to paint directly 
with brush. 

As to method again. The children do not read a 
story and bid it farewell for the year. The same story 
is read several times. So it is with drawing. Try one 
kind of plant several times. Interest may be main- 
tained by varying the medium of expression from 
pencil, or ink, to color; by drawing with the class one 
lesson, and not the second; by having half the class 
work at the board; by drawing the details this time, 
and the full spray next. Before you have finished 
with this one growth, the class will know how to draw 
it from memory, which is an excellent final lesson to 
attempt. 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 183 

The drawing of a dandelion 

We have spoken of training the eye to see. By cor- 
rect seeing, we mean seeing correct relationships, the 
exact shape or color of one thing compared with an- 
other. Successful teaching of drawing implies a con- 
stant effort on the part of the teacher to induce her 
pupils to see beauty. An artistic way of doing any- 
thing means a beautiful way of doing it. Let us take 
a concrete example, a lesson with the dandelion. 

We rejoice in physical perfection in life of any kind. 
Let us select the tall, vigorous dandehons, those with 
a superiority of mien. We draw the dandelion because 
of the flower upon its sturdy stalk, but we want the 
accompaniment of the leaves. We must look to it 
that the leaves and stems of our plant move together 
with regard to their general swing or direction. This 
arrangement to produce a consistent movement is 
the first thing to work for. Our paper is vertical, we 
must not forget that. The movement of the plant 
should agree with that of the paper (Plate VII), else 
there is discord at the outset. 

The leaves must not subordinate the flowers of our 
dandelion. We will award the flowers the vantage 
point of supreme interest. The most direct way of 
doing this is to draw more hghtly the lower stem and 
leaves, making a constantly increasing strength of 
line, of color, or of both, as the eye travels toward the 
supreme center of interest, the flowers. The eye is 




Plate VH 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 185 

attracted by the stronger values, as the ear by loud 
sounds. It will leave this attraction for short periods 
only; it will always return. This is a simple plan of 
emphasis and subordination, easy to understand, but 
for some unknown reason difficult to teach so that 
pupils will follow it. 

Now the problem is to see with yet more under- 
standing. We have the plant arranged on our desk 
so that the lines are in a consistent, rhythmical rela- 
tion, one with another and with the paper, and we 
have determined to subordinate the stems and leaves 
for the complete and unhampered enjoyment of the 
flowers. Let us begin to draw by at once attacking the 
real subject, the flowers. It is a mistake to waste one's 
first and best energy dilly-dallying around with unim- 
portant parts. We will go for the essentials first; other 
things will then find their rightful place. The master 
workman always sees things in their true perspective, 
he gets directly at the essentials in a masterly way. 

We cannot draw all the petals, nor do we want to 
do so. We want to suggest just enough to be sure that 
the mind fills in the rest. Art must always be sug- 
gestive, it must stimulate the imagination, otherwise 
it remains uninteresting, because it leaves nothing 
for the observer to do. The petals, even in this hum- 
ble flower, are so closely and so wondrously bound 
together at the center, that it is our despair to suggest 
their movement; but that is just what we must try 
to do, that is all we can ever hope to do. 



186 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Next will come the green sepals with joined hands 
dancing around the stalk. Let us not lose the grace 
of them; they are exquisite. 

Now the sturdy stalk with its superb curves, just 
strong enough to do its work. If we make it a six- 
teenth of an inch too large or too small, we shall know 
it. Such a stalk it is, increasing in diameter and power 
so gradually that the eye is mystified to find any place 
where there is any change, and yet the change is con- 
stant ! Not like a worn-out hose pipe, but always firm, 
clear-cut, and true. Here, indeed, is a test for our 
skill of hand! Nature has done her work well; it is a 
challenge ! 

Each leaf is dependent upon its backbone as much 
as we are upon ours. Let us think backbone and draw 
backbone, that our leaves may have the virility of 
those of the plant which stimulates our efforts. The 
little arrowheads in the leaves twist this way and that 
way; all are alike and yet all are different. Each has 
a character of its own, and all have the look of the 
dandelion family. 

Those parts of the plant which are the nearest we 
will make with the strongest lines, thus suggesting 
planes of distance. Very simple, but again difficult 
to teach so that the pupils will do it. 

Finally for the better understanding and enjoy- 
ment of our drawing, we may color it. In the fields 
the dandelion springs up in fullness of color. If we 
want to emphasize the color, we shall paint it in as 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 187 

rich color as we can use around the center of interest. 
As we leave this center, our color should, like our 
lines, become quieter and less attractive. There is 
another way to color our drawing. If our aim is 
merely to add to the attractiveness of the drawing 
and to differentiate its various parts, we should sub- 
ordinate color to line. The yellow should be subdued 
(with orange and black or blue), and the green dulled 
with gray. The common element, gray, will then 
enter into both colors and bring them together, thus 
producing a more harmonious effect with each other, 
with the gray pencil outline, and with the paper itself. 
Both methods of coloring are right, it all depends 
upon what you want to say.^ 

Illustrative Drawing 

Illustrative drawing may be taught in connection 
with any other school subject at any time of the year. 
It is evident that we cannot consider a fraction of the 
possible drawings here. Let us take one and under- 
stand that the process is the same with all. 

Probably midwinter offers the best time in the 
year for successful landscape-and-figure illustrative 

^ The colored-crayon box generally contains red, orange, yellow, 
green, blue, violet, and black. When white is needed, blackboard 
chalk is used. Many schools use successfully the three-color box of 
water-colors. I believe that less haphazard and truer work can be 
done with a box which contains red, orange, yellow, green, blue, 
violet, black, and white. The colors should all be as pure as possible. 
Sometimes we want pure color, although as a rule the color we 
need to use is grayed. 



188 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

drawing in any grade. The sky remains as in sum- 
mer, but the ground becomes a much simpler matter, 
merely a flat area of white. In any drawing where 
there is an abundance of detail, colored crayons will 
average better results than water-colors; their tech- 
nique is less diflScult. 

Suppose we take a typical subject, "Sliding down- 
hill." Our first lesson should be planned to inspire 
the children with a strong desire to do a little better 
than their very best. How does the teacher of reading 
do this? She reads to the class with the very best 
expression of which she is capable. The wise drawing 
teacher will draw for her class, and will draw with the 
same leadership she employs in her reading. 

You may say, "Always teach imaginative drawing 
this way? Why, it would mean for the children noth- 
ing more than copying!" 

You are right. They should not always copy; but 
at the beginning they should imitate far more than 
they are generally allowed to. At the start of mid- 
winter illustrative drawing, the children need posi- 
tive help in drawing sleds, barren trees, skies and 
hills. When they have learned to draw these elements 
of winter scenes, they are ready to use them in original 
pictures, as they use familiar words in making orig- 
inal stories. 

We will draw a picture of the greatest coasting hill 
in our neighborhood! We will have the sky blue and 
the ground white, and the trees in their cold gray win- 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 189 

ter garb, and the hill overspread with coasters. We 
will make a large drawing (at least sixteen by twenty 
inches), on paper pinned to a side wall where all the 
class may see our progress. The children work at 
their desks while we work at the board. All are to 
use gray paper. We begin by drawing the large hill 
with white blackboard crayon, making all the lines 
of the hillside radiate from the top. This suggests 
the truth concerning the tracks in the snow, and also 
suggests the perspective, the convergence of lines 
toward the distant point. Next, we add the distant 
hill at the left; distance increases the strength of the 
white, hence we use a little less white on this hill. 
(Plate VIII.) 

The second step consists in putting on a nearly flat 
gray-blue sky color. It will be noticed that this draw- 
ing is made on gray drawing-paper. The gray will 
show here and there through the snow and sky, add- 
ing to the effectiveness of both. Putting on the sky 
color requires method. It must be put on with short, 
even, light strokes of the crayon, much as if one were 
using pencil. The point should be used rather than 
the side of the crayon, as the latter produces a fuzzy, 
woolen result quite unlike the flat area we desire. 
It will be noticed that the sky appears slightly darker 
near the horizon. This is due to the effect of contrast 
with the white snow in nature, and, recognizing this 
natural effect, we are aided in differentiating land and 
sky. 




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Plate VIII 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 191 

With the same blue crayon, we hghtly suggest the 
trees and stone wall or fence on the far hills; remem- 
ber they are away back. Keep them light in value! 
Again, with the same blue (perhaps with an additional 
touch of violet), we draw the house and trees on the 
distant part of the large hill; all these will be a stronger 
blue (or violet) than those in the extreme distance. 
And finally, with the same hard-working blue, begin 
to add the coasters, mere specks in the distance, grow- 
ing larger as they come down the hill towards us, and 
growing plainer, that is, darker in value. 

It may be well here to make an abrupt change. An 
artist puts on his canvas, as guide-posts, wherever 
they should be, a spot of color which is his highest 
light, another for his strongest dark. We may at once 
move into the foreground and draw in full color sev- 
eral figures. Now we have our guides, these large, 
strong figures in front, and many small figures and 
groups in the distance. All that remains is to grade 
in size, in value, and with constantly weakened color 
(all colors as they recede into the distance grow 
weaker and bluer) all our figures from those in front 
to those in the distance. 

We shall want the same blue for two more things in 
our picture. With it we may draw the ruts in the 
snow made by the sleds and the footprints. An effect 
of reality is given by suggesting that there is a sun 
in the heavens. Children will respond animatedly to 
this thought by drawing a large, greenish-yellow disk 



192 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

over the blue sky, from which there are shooting darts 
much akin to shooting pains in the head. There is a 
better way. It is not necessary, nor is it possibte to 
draw the sun successfully. If we decide where we 
think the sun may be, we can show it is there by 
drawing the shadows which the represented objects 
in our picture would cast. This is very simple, if we 
remember to keep the sun in the same imagined place 
in the sky. Note that both the ruts in the snow and 
the shadows grow weaker as they recede from the 
eye. These simple things are what give "atmosphere" 
to a picture. (This drawing is not shown in color; 
therefore the reader will have to picture the figures 
and sleds in the foreground as being drawn in full 
color, those halfway back in half color, etc.) 

And now it is time to see what the class has been 
doing. "Oh, what drawings! I never could teach 
illustrative drawing." But, my dear teacher, you 
probably have done all that anybody could do in one 
lesson. It has not been possible to teach any one 
thing thoroughly. We need more time and practice. 
The children are willing. They have seen what they 
may do if they will but learn how; and they are eager 
to drill on the necessary details of rendering. 

On small pieces of gray drawing-paper, we will 
learn to draw hillsides with the strokes made in the 
right direction. On other paper we may practice 
making skies that are perfectly flat. (Figure 2.) At 
another time we will draw both; and later we may 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 193 

add the distant blue trees and figures. (Figure 3.) 
All this time we are learning picture words. It will be 
necessary to take other lessons and teach action in 
figure drawing. One good way, surely, is to draw 
skeleton figures in action (Figure 4), and when these 
have been mastered, we may clothe them in winter 
garb. Finally, we return to our first drawing problem, 
and make the entire drawing. Save the first attempts 
for comparison with this ultimate product. 

We have now paved the way for other winter illus- 
trative drawing. Perhaps there is no more delightful 
method of teaching the effects of distance than by 
means of these winter sketches. At a glance we see 
that distance decreases the apparent size of objects, 
and decreases their value or strength of color. These 
two principles form the platform upon which the 
whole theory of perspective may be constructed; in 
fact, one might almost say that they are the whole of 
perspective. Children in the first school year can 
answer such questions as these: *'Why do these peo- 
ple seem so small .^^ " (Indicating those in the distance.) 
"Why is this girl in front drawn in such strong color .f^" 
"Why is that one away off there drawn so hghtly.^" 
"How about the trees .^^ " " How can you tell in a draw- 
ing which of these two trees is in front of the other?" 
Neither children nor adults ordinarily see these dif- 
ferences in color or value in their daily round in life, 
but any one can see them in a drawing correctly made. 
It is necessary to call attention to the particular 



194 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

points which we wish to have carefully observed. 
Answering such questions as those suggested above, 
focuses their thoughts to specific, essential features. 
The glib replies from the children are misleading — 
to us. The answers made through the spoken lan- 
guage are correct; it seems as if they understood and 
could apply their knowledge in their drawings. But 
they do not. The application of this wisdom must be 
carefully looked after at each step. Be it said in pass- 
ing that the same general principle holds with adults. 

No one method of presentation will serve to teach 
illustrative drawing. Sometimes the children draw 
alone; sometimes the teacher draws alone; sometimes 
the children express their ideas as to how their thought 
ought to appear in a drawing, and the teacher fol- 
lows with a better expression; and again, the teacher 
leads all the way through, step by step. Such an 
illustrative drawing as we have considered is not diffi- 
cult to make, if one constantly bears in mind certain 
facts of appearance. The sky is blue, all blue; snow 
is white, all white; ice is gray -blue, flat and cold; 
a distant mass of trees is seen as a mass, not as indi- 
vidual trees; houses are painted all over, one color, 
sidewalks are one flat color, etc.; and all these things 
are subordinate in value and strength of color to the 
active figures which are to be found in all illustrative 
school work; they all serve as a setting or background 
for life. 

Children ca7i draw these pictures, they can draw 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 195 

them astonishingly well. It all 'depends upon the 
teacher's ability to lead the class by means of her 
own larger drawings. Do not worry about robbing the 
child of his individuality; rather ought we to con- 
cern ourselves with giving him the ability to express 
himself coherently. Let us teach every lesson. 

Animal Drawing 

Any teacher can learn to draw the simple animal 
forms generally taught in school. As with all other 
drawing work, the teacher must know how to do the 
thing she is to teach. 

Everybody who has tried it, knows that the at- 
tempt to have the children draw animals from live 
specimens results in a large measure of failure. The 
problem is too large for the beginner to grasp. In- 
deed, the children will do as well as a class of adults 
when the lesson is presented in this manner. If there 
has been no teaching, why should we expect good 
results.'^ A class of any age is not expected to know 
what it has not been taught. 

All artists in any line are copyists at first, but blind 
copying of anything without method or understand- 
ing is of but little value. Show a child how to do a 
thing and he will probably do it; tell him, and he will 
probably misunderstand, or fail to grasp your entire 
meaning. 

There is a prevalent opinion that one who draws 
can draw anything. This is erroneous. Because an indi- 



196 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

vidual can draw a cat in most approved fashion, it is 
no proof that he can draw a hippopotamus. He must 
learn to draw the latter as he learned to draw the cat. 
Of course, the more he draws, the easier it will be for 
him to draw new forms, but each must be learned 
before, it is known. Undoubtedly some animal forms 
are easier to draw than others. Perhaps the easiest is 
the chicken; then follows the rabbit, turkey, fish, 
rooster, hen, duck, birds of characteristic pose, color 
or shape like the woodpecker or heron, and then the 
elephant, camel, giraffe and cat, or other animals hav- 
ing striking characteristics of form. Among the most 
difficult is the dog, which is often tried first because 
it is an easy model to bring into school. 

Now for the first actual drawing lesson with teachers 
or pupils. Let us commence with the chicken. All 
drawing is but an attempt to make lines or spots 
which will suggest or recall to the mind of the spec- 
tator the real object. Hence in this animal drawing 
the use of color is an important adjunct. The teacher 
may draw at the board with colored chalks, the pupils 
are to use their wax crayons at their seats. Draw as 
a yellow mass, a nearly horizontal ellipse, almost a 
circle. (Plate IX.) Add to this a small circle for the 
head. Suggest a peak for the tail, and the beginning 
of the legs under the body, back of the center. Now 
change color and use orange to draw the short bill, 
the eye, and the legs and feet. Note that the legs of 
all fowl and birds are sprung backwards, ready to 



• % %. 




198 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

push the body forward at once. Almost always, be- 
ginners draw the legs vertical, like stilts. The feet are 
larger than you have imagined them to be unless 
you are a good observer, and there is a spur in back 
which acts as our heel on the ground, or as our thumb 
when taking hold of anything. Draw this chicken 
several times. Try it in the same position, but facing 
the other way, always drawing the masses first. The 
reason why better results are secured in this case by 
mass drawing, is that the chicken impresses us as a 
fuzzy mass or ball, rather than a thing of distinct out- 
line. 

We are now ready to draw the chicken in various 
positions. There is nothing new, only a rearrange- 
ment of the same elements. If we want the chicken 
pecking at something on the ground, we incline the 
body, and place the head low down. The back or front 
view is begun with a circle for the body as well as for 
the head, and the drawing of the details of the head 
and feet make it face away from or toward us. Two 
chickens pulling at a worm always pleases the chil- 
dren, and the energy of the action rests almost en- 
tirely in the position of the legs which are decidedly 
inclined. A chicken drinking holds his head high for 
obvious reasons. 

It must be evident that there is nothing difficult 
in the drawing of a chicken. Try these drawings sev- 
eral times and you will have mastered them. If you 
would complete your education in the drawing of 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 199 

chickens, draw from live ones. The method followed 
in teaching children is the same, first store the mind 
with the essential characteristics of the form by means 
of intelligent copying, the teacher and class working 
together. Follow this whenever possible by work 
directly from the live form. In this way one is not at 
first overwhelmed by the many details of the subject, 
and the new element in drawing from life is merely 
that the animal itself suggests the problem instead of 
the copy from which the drawing was first done. 

In drawing the rabbit the teacher will use white 
chalk at the board and the children will use the same 
medium at their seats, working on gray paper. The 
back view is the simplest. First, make a circle, a mass 
of white chalk scrubbed on lightly. Then add the 
bump at the top of the head, a knob on each corner 
for the hind legs, and two long, somewhat pointed, 
elliptical masses will serve to suggest the ears. With 
stronger strokes we will outline the drawing, indi- 
cating the position of the hip joints and making a 
wad in back for the tail. The ears should be drawn, 
not as rigid ellipses, but with a waving line. 

A slightly different drawing of the feet, discernible 
at a glance, and the egg-shaped outline of the head 
will serve to turn the rabbit around so that he faces 
us. Indicate the nostrils, and the small elKpses show 
the position and shape of the eyes. The head may be 
raised or lowered at will, as shown. 

The side view presents no formidable obstacles, if 



200 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

drawn in mass. If the attempt is made in outline, as 
it always is when made mi^ided, the task is simi- 
lar to that of drawing a map by beginning at one cor- 
ner and continuing around until we return to the 
starting-point, — also like trying to draw a pig with 
the eyes shut, a former social pastime. But, to re- 
turn, the rabbit is associated in picture and story 
with Easter time. So is the hot cross bun, and all may 
be correlated with the drawing of the side view of the 
rabbit. We will begin by drawing with the side of the 
crayon a hot cross bun, at the front of which we will 
attach an egg. The same elongated irregular ellipses 
which we made in previous views will serve for the 
ears, and the tail and front foot are added as shown. 
With the point of the crayon we may now correct and 
emphasize the outline. Beginning at the top of the 
head we will show the bend in the profile of the face 
where the forehead seems to end and the nose to be- 
gin, continuing the line down to the curve of nostril 
and chin. Then come the ears, one behind the other, 
the slight curve at the back of the head, the arched 
back with its peak a little back of the center of the 
entire length of the rabbit, the slight indentations 
where the hip bones come, the tail, the two legs and 
feet, and the line of the upper part of the hind leg 
against the body. The characteristic position of the 
rabbit should be marked by this time, its habitual 
position, a crouching one, very unlike that of cat or 
dog, and this precludes the drawing of legs, which 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 201 

are diflBcult to draw in any animal. Try the same 
drawing turned around the other way. Then try the 
other positions shown. 

We may try other attitudes, snap-shot positions 
in which a few details are changed to indicate varied 
movements. The only change as the rabbit washes his 
face is in the position of the front paws; the rest is 
identical with our profile drawing and done in the 
same manner. If you want to make him run, stretch 
out his legs to an almost horizontal position. Let us 
not forget that the mass must come first in each draw- 
ing, the details and outline last. 

Children and adults find difficulty in drawing the 
fish because the two main masses are not seen dis- 
tinctly. The body is elliptical and the tail is in the 
form of a letter X . Draw these two in outline first to 
make sure that we see this relationship. Fill in with 
the side of the crayon, making the tail with a more 
flexible line than that in the X , and we have the char- 
acteristic contour of the fish. Use crayon of orange 
color. 

At this point experience has proved that it is well 
to take time to draw slowly and with care the various 
details. We will do this in outline that we may under- 
stand their position and formation. Commence the fish 
with a lightly drawn ellipse and X . Draw the line for 
the top of the head, the back and tail, and continue 
along the under part of the body. The mouth of a fish 
is never indicative of any but the most morose thought, 



202 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

a sad gasping for breath, drawn with depressing, down- 
ward Hnes. The eye is large, glassy and round, and 
the gills are arcs of larger circles, having a waving 
character of line. Immediately back of the gills is 
generally placed one fin, drawn somewhat as a fan is 
drawn; beneath this is another, similar, but curving 
slightly backward in its every line. Still farther back 
is a third fin, with lines pushing back more in the 
direction of the main body lines. 

The fin which springs from the top of the back is 
nearly parallel to the backbone. It is supported by 
bones which incline more and more as they approach 
the tail. These details are in general common to all 
fishes. When we have learned them we may begin 
practicing drawing fishes in more interesting positions. 
Try swinging one around in a curve toward us. First 
comes the mass with one or two sweeps of the crayon ; 
the details are added much as in the side position. 
Finally, we shall, of course, want to be able to draw 
a fish in full front view. Here we have the oval mass, 
the four fins, and the same sad facial expression. 

For the final lesson on the fish, place the school 
aquarium, or globe in which fishes are swimming, 
where half the class can see it, and allow the children 
near to draw freely from the fishes as they swim about. 

Any other required animal may be learned, or 
taught, in like manner. Space here will not allow the 
consideration of others. Rarely do time and other 
drawing work allow the teaching of more than one or 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 203 

two animal forms during one school year. To sustain 
the interest of the class, draw a chicken coop or yard 
or the side view of an aquarium on the board, and by 
pasting the children's drawings to the board, complete 
the picture with the suggestion of the live forms in their 
home surroundings. This may be the final work for 
the year in animal drawing, or the children may use 
their new drawing words to make Easter cards or 
other designs in which the animal form is appropriate, 
or in illustrative drawing. 

Object Drawing 
Grades I-IV 

Object drawing offers further experience in seeing 
and drawing. Where the primary grade drawing 
schedules are made out with due regard to the seasons 
and national holidays and customs, the plan is often 
something like this: September-October, nature 
drawing; November, fruits and vegetables. Thanks- 
giving; December, Christmas work; January-Febru- 
ary, object drawing, Lincoln, Washington, valentines; 
March, birds, chickens, etc., Easter, early spring 
growths; April, May, and June, buds and flowers, de- 
sign. Illustrative drawing, applied design, lettering, 
color, picture study, and correlation with other sub- 
jects are introduced where needed. 

According to this schedule, object drawing comes in 
January and February. This is the time when interest 



204 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

is at its height regarding Christmas toys. There are 
no better objects for children to draw. They have de- 
cided characteristics of shape and strong color, the 
two requirements which we have discussed as being 
necessary for untrained eyes, and there is no question 
of interest. Avoid drawing from such subjects as the 
wooden sphere, cube, or cylinder, once considered as 
being of prime importance in primary drawing for the 
purpose of teaching principles. As with English, it is 
too early to mention the grammar of drawing. If the 
objects happen to be cylindrical or cubical in shape, 
place them on a level with the eyes of the children, 
that perspective confusion may be avoided. In all 
drawing lessons where the class is asked to draw from 
a given thing, it is obviously necessary that the object 
be large enough to be seen clearly from all parts of the 
room. The teacher should walk to the back of the 
room to make sure that all the pupils can see defi- 
nitely what they are asked to draw. To err in this 
respect is not uncommon in classrooms. 

Draw with colored crayons (and white chalk where 
necessary) ; such objects as a sail-boat, a train of cars, 
a horse and wagon, a fire-engine, or an automobile 
are unsurpassed as models for little children. Real 
seeing of constantly changing form and color is re- 
quired. At Thanksgiving time draw fruits and vege- 
tables associated with the holiday festivities, oranges, 
bananas, pumpkins. Large drawings may be done, if 
desired, with water-colors, although the colored cray- 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 205 

ons are generally preferable in these grades. Now and 
then make pencil drawings without color, and again 
color the pencil drawings. Let us always bear in mind 
that little children need much encouragement and help. 
The teacher should draw with the class frequently, 
remembering, however, that the ultimate aim is to 
teach the class to work freely and independently. 

There is nothing new to add as to the method of 
presentation. Follow the same plan as with nature 
or illustrative drawing. Have a part of the class draw 
upon the blackboard, among the advantages of which 
are added interest, variation of medium employed, 
and opportunity for class criticism and correction. 
After drill upon one object, draw it from memory. 
Then use it in illustrative drawing, as a boat sailing 
upon the water. 

Grade V 

The common fruits and vegetables are suggested for 
study, singly and in groups, also objects having char- 
acteristic outlines, as shovel, rubber boot, hammer, 
pitcher, ink-filler, globe, and mounted birds. 

Here may come the first definite study of a per- 
spective principle in object drawing. In a group of 
objects upon a horizontal surface below the level of the eye, 
the nearer object appears the lower. As a result of many 
drawings of two or more objects in groups, the children 
will come to know this principle through their experi- 
ence in drawing. 



206 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

It is a very common mistake in drawing (and other 
subjects) to believe that when we have taught the 
statement of the principle in words, we have taught 
the principle. This is a very grave error. 

A good agent for any system of writing can state 
the principles of good penmanship, yet he may be a 
very poor writer. The card writer at his desk on the 
street corner cannot formulate in words the statement 
of a single principle which he daily uses. How about 
the carpenter, the plumber, the dressmaker, or the 
housekeeper? Do they first learn in words the state- 
ments of the principles underlying their occupations.'^ 
Of course not. Few of these experts ever attempt to 
summarize in words; they say, "I'll show you! " That 
is sufficient; they do not know the adequate expression 
in English, and, as a matter of fact, they do not need 
to. They do real work, and their work is not talking. 
They know that the concrete must come before the 
abstract. The statement in words of any principle 
is always an abstraction, really comprehended only 
when resulting from many concrete experiences. 

So let it be understood that we can really learn, and 
therefore comprehend, the principles underlying any 
art or craft, profession or business, only through con- 
crete experience many times repeated. We admit that 
we may learn to state in words the principles of any 
form of art or craft expression, but these abstractions 
never alone made a skilled worker. Probably most 
teachers can state the principles of convergence, but 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 207 

few teachers can draw a house in true perspective. 
Therefore, with regard to the object drawing for this 
. year, we have a — 

Special Note: Please bear in mind that this prin- 
ciple, namely, in a group of objects below the eye, the 
nearer appears the lower y can be learned only through 
making correct drawings which illustrate it. Teach this 
one principle through its use this year. 

As all our object drawing in elementary schools is 
done from objects placed below the eye level, the prin- 
ciple may be stated briefly, as, the nearest objects in 
a drawing appear lowest. Is not this a simple state- 
ment .'^ Apparently any fifth-grade pupil can under- 
stand it in words. Place two or three objects where 
the application of this principle may be seen; with- 
out comment, ask the children to draw the group. A 
large proportion of the class will not apply their 
word knowledge. They understand the words, but not 
their significance as a whole. 

It is our business as teachers, just now, to see that 
they learn to draw, not to talk about it. Let us solve 
several drawing problems. 

Problem 1. To draw one apple behind another. 
The teacher draws lightly, upon the board, a circle, 
swinging round and round, one way, then the other, 
until a good result is obtained. Then she carefully 
goes over her best result line with a clear, heavy chalk- 
mark, adding the depression and stem to suggest the 
apple. A series of light horizontal lines above the ap- 



208 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

pie, made with free whole-arm-movement lines, will 
indicate the back edge of the table. This may be left 
light and rather suggestive as it is in the background. 
Now ask the pupils to copy this drawing, working in 
the manner employed by the teacher. When this has 
been finished, ask the class to place in their drawings 
another apple farther back on the table. When done, 
the teacher at the board will draw the right answer to 
the problem. She will draw' a second circle as lightly 
and as freely as the first; drawing the whole circle 
as if we could see through the first apple, and finally 
selecting the best outline for the circumference of the 
second apple, erasing, if desired, the part of the apple 
which is behind the first. The outline of the second 
apple should be lighter than that of the first, as it is 
farther back, and the line for the back of the table 
should be the least conspicuous of all. (Plate X.) 
The children may now exchange papers, and, aided 
by the teacher, each child may correct the paper in 
hand, giving it a final mark, as with arithmetic prob- 
lems. Those drawing at the board may follow similar 
practice. 

Problem 2. Here is a drawing of two apples (Plate 
X, Figure 4), made as if of clear glass. Something is 
wrong; can you copy this drawing and make it so that 
it looks right.? Exchange papers, correct and mark. 

Problem 3. Here are two unfinished potatoes. 
(Figure 5.) Complete the drawing so that one potato 
seems to be behind the other. 





riQ'Q. 



FIG 4 




no- 5 



FIG -6 




FIG-T- 



Plate X 



210 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Problem k. Something is wrong with this orange and 
banana. (Figure 6.) Can you fix it? Answer in your 
drawing, don't tell me! 

Problem 5. Here is a queer one. (Figure 7.) Can 
you straighten out this confusion? 

Problem 6. Have children state the problems; for 
example, "Draw a carrot in front of a potato"; "Draw 
a lemon in back of a pear," etc. Drill, drill, drill ! 

In all object drawing there are a few errors which 
are bound to appear in any school class. They come as 
surely as taxes, and we must as carefully plan to meet 
them, else we shall pay interest in the form of time and 
patience. Without question the mistakes are those 
requiring keener vision than is possessed by most boys 
and girls, or adults, — little things that require subtle 
seeing. As an illustration, the eye does not see that 
the distant end of a book appears shorter than that 
immediately in front of us (try it), or that the lower 
ellipse on a spool seems wider than that at the top, or 
that the apple behind can be seen less clearly than the 
one in front. We can see these things in a drawing or 
a photograph, but our eyes are not sharp enough to 
see such slight differences in small objects. 

One who draws correctly knows that certain things 
must be done to produce certain results or effects, and 
in large measure he does them because of this knowl- 
edge. For, after all, the drawing of any object is but 
the attempt to convey to another the idea or impres- 
sion of the thing drawn. So many people believe that 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 211 

drawing is an imitation of the thing drawn. It is not. 
When we draw a potato, we do not try to imitate 
the potato; we try to suggest it by outhne, mass, or 
color, one or more, so that our presentation shall call 
the original to mind. 

At the beginning of the teaching of any principle, 
let us forestall these expected errors by problems like 
those given above, and by reference to other drawings 
or illustrations. This suggests another problem sheet. 

Problem 7. Cut from magazines pictures which show 
that the nearest objects are the lowest. Mount these 
illustrations upon a sheet of drawing-paper and label 
the sheet properly. Now have each pupil, with pen 
and ink, mark the lowest edges of several objects in 
each pasted illustration. In this way the child sees 
how some one else has known and used this principle. 
His attention is focussed upon the particular thing 
we are trying to teach him. He records the facts with 
his muscles, and the teacher may know that the child 
understands what he is to look for. 

Problem 8. With the experience thus gained through 
drill, we may proceed to draw from real objects. The 
children now bring to their groups an understanding 
of what to look for, and how to express what they see. 

In all object drawing use soft, or medium-soft, 
pencils (when pencils are used), and insist that they 
be held freely three or four inches from the point. 
A cramped position of the hand prevents the worker 
from seeing the whole of his drawing; it precludes the 



212 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

possibility of free drawing with light lines. Keep the 
papers with edges parallel to the edges of the desk. 
Pupils are prone to tip the papers as when writing. 
It is very difficult to get vertical drawing on slanting 
papers. Spend considerable time in making quick 
sketches, three or four objects or groups being drawn 
in one lesson. After much experience in drawing with 
pencil, wax crayons or water-colors may be used to 
add interest and attractiveness. The strongest color 
should be used upon the nearest object, as with pencil 
outline. The background may be a flat area of quiet 
color. (Figure 8.) 

Grade VI 

Thoroughly review the principle taught in the fifth 
grade. Conduct this review by problems in drawing 
as suggested. The new principle for this grade is, 
A circle viewed obliquely appears as an ellipse. With 
the top of a waste-basket show the class that a circle 
appears a straight line^when one looks across the top, 
and as a circle when one looks squarely into the top. 
It appears as an ellipse when looked at obliquely. 

Show the class how perfect and beautiful a curve an 
ellipse really is, by using pins and strings as described 
on page 166. There are no corners, the two sides are 
alike, and the opposite ends are duplicates in shape. 
After such illustration, practice free hand on board and 
at seats, making the series of ellipses ranging from a 
straight line to a full circle. (Plate XI, Figure 1.) 




Plate XI 







Vv/ 






Plate XII 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 215 

Then try a chain of elhpses (Figure 2); **no fair turn- 
ing the paper around!" Use the whole-arm movement 
as in writing exercises. Look for eUipses in the school- 
room, on the street, in pictures. 

There is a second part to the principle for this year 
which reads. Of two horizontal circles (placed in a group 
below the level of the eye) the lower appears a wider 
ellipse in proportion to its length than the upper. For 
school drawing objects always are placed below the 
level of the eye. In an opaque object, like a pail, not 
one person in a thousand sees the slight difference in 
the width of these ellipses, but, strangely enough, it 
is not difficult to see that a drawing made otherwise 
is incorrect. 

Some way, we must have the pupils really see that 
this principle holds true. It can be seen in a thin, 
cylindrical glass tumbler when placed near the eye and 
slightly below the eye level. This involves a procedure 
not always convenient with a large class. If we take a 
hoop, or the waste-basket, and hold it just below the 
level of the eye until the class sees how wide the ellipse 
really is, and then slowly lower it, every child can see 
that it seems to grow wider as it drops. In other words, 
we can see farther down into the circle. 

Let us suppose that every child has carefully observed 
this change and can tell us about it. Ask the class 
to draw a pail and see how many can use this new 
wisdom. We shall find that the meaning of this prin- 
ciple must be learned through experience in drawing. 



216 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

On Plate XII is given a series of test problems. In 
each the full lines indicate the lines to be drawn on the 
board by the teacher. The dotted lines show what the 
teacher is to ask for. After these have been worked 
out, as with the fifth-grade problems, let the pupils give 
new tests. Ahvays draw the whole of every ellipse , 
whether the whole can be seen or not. This is the 
only way correct results can be secured by anybody, 
pupil or artist. 

Paste in an orderly manner on a sheet of drawing- 
paper pictures showing ellipses, and make the ellipses 
with pen and ink. Label the sheet properly. 

After considerable drill we are ready for the drawing 
directly from cylindrical objects. All the while it is 
the best of practice for children to correct and mark 
drawings other than their own. Such work encourages 
critical observation, and everybody knows that it is 
easier to see the faults in the work of another than in 
our own efforts. Pictorial drawing can be mastered 
only by repeated trials; draw, draw, draw! 

We will have in the classroom, on the front desk, 
a variety of objects, vegetables, fruits, cups, bowls, 
pitchers, measures, glasses, cooking-utensils, cans, 
vases, bottles. There need be no dearth of material. 
Have pupils select groups of two or three from this 
conglomerate collection and arrange them on boards 
or desks about the room. If placed on desks, the desk 
top should be horizontal. 

By means of discussion the facts will be brought 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 217 

out that objects in a group ought to have relation- 
ship and consistency, and also some variety. Things 
which are associated in actual use in life are pleasing 
when represented together in a drawing. Their use 
is indirectly indicated and our imagination thereby 
stimulated; hence they seem better worth the doing 
than meaningless combinations. Then there ought 
to be some variety in size, shape, light and dark, 
and color, in the grouped objects. Nothing is perma- 
nently attractive which is monotonous. A drinking- 
glass and a lemon would form a group consistent in 
idea and varied in its shape, size, and color make-up. 
A glass and a pumpkin would be inconsistent. 

In making the first sketch of an object or group, all 
the lines should be light and free, merely tentative 
or trial lines, made in a frankly preliminary way to 
locate the objects and their parts. (Plate XI, Figure 
3.) Draw the whole object with the same freedom 
used in the practice work in drawing ellipses, ^^^len 
a class habitually draws this way, you may be sure of 
good drawings. The very method indicates a willing- 
ness and an intention to make changes and move- 
ments, which are always necessary. In the final lining- 
in of a pencil drawing, the pupil should bear in mind 
that a sure way to give the impression of distance, 
that one object or part of an object is nearer than 
a second object or part, is to draw the nearer one 
as a whole with a darker line. As vie have seen, this 
is but Nature's law, — distance decreases apparent 



218 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

values. This means that the near edge of an ellipse 
may be brought forward where it belongs by making 
it stronger than the back edge. The final group of 
drawings for the year may be made in color, as in the 
fifth grade. (Plate XI, Figure 5.) 

Sometimes the balance of the drawing will be im- 
proved, as with nature drawing, by adding a well- 
drawn initial in just the right place. This initial should 
in some way reflect or echo the drawing. It may 
repeat the shape of the paper or the shape of some 
object drawn; it may reproduce or echo some color 
used in the objects; it should be strong or delicate, 
as the case may be, to agree in character with the 
rest of the drawing. (Plates X and XI.) 

Color 

Where color is used in our school work thus far con- 
sidered, imitative or naturalistic effects are all that 
need be aimed for. Color, as we shall now discuss it, 
refers to its application in design. 

Every problem in design, if studied thoughtfully, 
will reveal a sane plan of coloring. The teacher should 
have some knowledge of color that she may lead the 
class in reasonable discussion. She should know that : 

1. Color harmony is merely color agreement. We 
understand that, in music, harmony consists in an 
agreement of the tones ; it is exactly the same with color. 

2. A design as a whole should have one dominating 
color — a brown room, a green book cover, a red shawl. 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 219 

3. Color areas should vary in size. A design should 
not show equal areas of light and dark blue, for exam- 
ple. One should dominate. If we use three values 
(light, middle, and dark) of one color, or three colors, 
as yellow-green, green, and blue-green, the areas 
should vary, as small, medium, and large. 

4. Nature uses bright colors in small areas (or for 
short periods of time). This should be our guide. The 
large part of any design should generally be quiet, 
with a small accent of brighter color. A good rule is — 
the larger the area, the more quiet the color. 

5. Technically considered, black, white, and gray 
are not colors, but neutrals, and one or more may be 
used, if desired, in many color schem.es. 

6. All colors will agree if sufficiently light in value. 
This is because the light, not the color, dominates. 

7. All colors will agree if sufficiently dark in value, 
because the dark dominates. 

8. It is generally safer to have colors of slight range 
in value, all light, all dark, or all near middle value. 

9. The changes in value (light and dark) in colors 
should be orderly, a light value, a darkest value, and 
one halfway between these two. (This is all that it is 
wise to use in the grades.) 

10. Considering the neutrals as colors, the simplest 
harmony is black and white, or black, white, and mid- 
dle gray, or three grays, light, middle, and dark. 
This is sometimes called a ''Harmony of Neutrals." 
More agreement, and therefore more harmony is ob- 



220 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

tained by using two or three grays than by the strong 
contrast of black and white. 

11. A one-color harmony may be made by using 
two values, or three equidistant values (light, middle, 
and dark) of one color. This is Dominant Harmony, 
because one color dominates. 

12. An Analogous Harmony may be made by using 
two or three neighboring or similar hues (colors), as 
orange-yellow, yellow, and green-yellow. Generally 
the key color, the middle color, should be the purest 
in color, and used to accent some small important 
center of interest, as the title on a book-cover. 

13. Oftentimes in school work the cover-paper, or 
other material used in construction work, dictates the 
general color scheme for the whole; for example, a design 
on brown crash may be worked out in tones of brown. 

14. Added interest is always obtained by using 
an appropriately symbolic color. The symbolism or 
meaning of colors is as follows: — 

White: light, purity, cleanliness. 

Black: darkness, despair, mourning. 

Gray and Dull Brown: simplicity, quiet, peace. 

Red: love, passion, bravery, valor. 

Orange: knowledge, benevolence, home. 

YeUow: wisdom, goodness, inspiration. 

Green: fruitfulness, prosperity, life, hope, immortality. 

Blue: loyalty, patience. 

These statements are easily comprehended. One 
may know infinitely more about color, but it is not 
necessary for our school problems. 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 221 

Before attempting to color any design, we should 
have class discussion and decide upon a definite, ap- 
propriate color scheme. We should select some one 
color for the whole as being symbolical or peculiarly 
appropriate for service. We should decide what is to 
be the center of interest, and that this is to be given 
the brightest touch of color. Then the whole class 
should be held strictly to the limitations of this plan. 
It is suicide to good intentions to allow pupils an un- 
guided, free choice and combinations. All the color 
problems in this world are governed by the same con- 
ditions of use, appropriateness, and symbolism that 
the school design imposes upon us. Therefore, suc- 
cessful coloring depends upon clear and orderly think- 
ing, and, of course, the child cannot do this unaided. 

Recall to mind a beautiful room or gown which you 
have seen. Read over the list above, from 1 to 14, and 
see if you do not find that the room or gown exemph- 
fies these same principles of color combinations. 

We have found in our other drawing work that good 
results are not to be expected as the result of the first 
trial. Likewise, in our color, we have some teaching 
to do. We shall need practice lessons in putting on 
flat-color areas of crayon, or flat washes of water- 
colors. To do this skillfully requires patience when 
working with crayon, and a full brush, a tipped paper 
(so that the water will settle at the bottom of the 
wash as fast as we put it on), and considerable deft- 
ness when water-colors are used. We shall want to 



222 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

trace our design several times on paper, then lay a 
wash over the paper to imitate the color of the back- 
ground of the material (cover-paper, cloth, or wood) 
iFrom which the ultimate thing is to be made, and finally 
paint the design on this background as it will appear 
on the final material. 

After we have finished, we may discover that it 
does not seem quite right. Unfortunately there are 
no absolute, all-comprehensive rules for producing 
beautiful color, or music. At the last, it rests with 
us. Are all these colors in sympathy? Has the com- 
position unity — is it one whole thing? Do we see the 
design before the thing? Do we exclaim, "What a 
striking design!" or do we say, "What a beautiful sofa 
cushion!"? Is there one color which is too strong 
or too weak, in value, hue, or intensity, to combine 
peaceably with the others? The chances are ten to 
one that some part will have to be changed; perhaps 
the whole color scheme would better be taken out 
under the faucet and washed off, leaving the drawing 
only. Possibly one color needs brightening here or 
dulling there. There can be no real education of the 
color sense without thoughtful work. The love of 
color must be developed in the individual through 
his own efforts. 

It is rather interesting to note that in a class of forty, 
two or three may produce commendable results on 
these first experimental designs, and that the others 
in the class will generally agree upon these sheets as 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 223 

the best, — if they understand the problem. Class 
criticism as to excellent and poor results, with reasons 
so far as they may be given, are of great benefit. 
After such criticism comes more practice work, and 
finally the application of color to the cover-paper, 
cloth, or wood. Later on, under "Design," are given 
specific problems involving color. 

Lettering 

The pupil who letters better than his neighbor does 
so because he comprehends more thoroughly three 
simple principles which are involved in good printing. 

It will help us in our teaching if we compare excel- 
lent printing with inferior work that we may note the 
features common to good lettering. We can pronounce 
in ten seconds all the words written on the board for 
the spelling lesson. Now if we try to read the list 
from beginning to end and to see each letter in each 
word, it will take us several times as long. Little chil- 
dren sometimes read before they know all the letters. 
We read by seeing, not individual letters, but groups 
of letters, — words. Therefore, it is manifestly neces- 
sary that letters should be grouped so as distinctly 
to form separate words. The simplest and most prev- 
alent error in the printing of a beginner is illustrated 
in Plate XIII, Figure 1, corrected in Figure 2. We 
should work on the principle that the letters in each 
word ought to be placed as near together as they can 
be, and that neighboring words be placed so far apart 



DLDSEDBEhE 
5LE55ED BE HE 
B\_f33ED Df HE 

BE 






ffi: 



6 
7 

5 



EXTEriDED LETTERS 





Plate XIII 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 225 

that another letter could be inserted between any two 
words. It is well to exaggerate both these points at 
first. 

Figure 3 shows another familiar fault in school 
lettering. There is lacking in the mind of him who 
does work of this nature a definite standard of vertical. 
The fact that these letters are at cross-purposes does 
not jar him. The consistency of movement which 
should come from the vertical position of these letters 
is missing. The lettering lacks unity for this reason. 
Generally where letters are not vertical in their placing 
on the paper, their incorrect position is caused by the 
tipping of the paper on the desk while making the 
letters. It will be noted that the error usually consists 
in slanting the letters as in slant handwriting. It is 
practically impossible in school to get vertical letter- 
ing unless the paper be kept vertical upon the desk. 
Vertical papers will cure slant lettering — in time. 

The third and last error is shown in Figure 4. 
Perhaps it will be best to consider this in two parts. 
The pupils will tell us that the 5, E, and S are upside 
down, but why are they? It is not a question of bal- 
ance, for a vertical line through the S will prove that 
it is perfectly balanced. "But it looks as if it would 
fall over!" The answer is right. It seems to lack, not 
balance, but the power to keep its balance, that is, 
stability. We are accustomed to seeing tree-trunks, 
and tall chimneys, and snow-men, and a thousand 
other things so made that they are apparently able 



226 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

to stand up without danger of toppling, and although 
we know that the S, E, and B cannot fall over, we are 
better satisfied when they do not look as if they might 
do so at any moment. Look at any one of these capi- 
tals on any printed page, and perhaps you will be sur- 
prised to see, when you turn the page upside down, how 
much larger the lower part is than the upper. This 
gives the letter the effect of having a firm foundation. 

Now notice the horizontal lines in these letters. 
(Figure 4.) They have been put at different levels 
in the several letters, each level independent of the 
others. Good lettering has an orderly plan in its 
horizontal lining, just as it has in its vertical lining. 
A simple plan adopted by many, because it gives 
variety and consistence and good proportions, is to 
divide the height of the letters into thirds, and to 
base all the horizontal lines upon these division lines. 
(Figure 5.) Lettering is correct if consistently built 
on any other similar plan. (Figures 6 and 7.) It is 
useless to try to get good lettering without first draw- 
ing light guide lines. When one considers how the pro- 
fessional sign-painter always plans from first to last 
his letters and words with light pencil or chalk lines 
before painting a letter, one marvels not at the failure 
of those pupils who cannot wait to do this preliminary 
work, but rush in where adepts fear to tread. 

Let us again state the three principles: (1) Group 
all letters into wordsy with definite space between the 
words; (2) the lines or axes of all letters must be vertical 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 227 

(unless all are slanted at the same angle as when using 
an italic alphabet) ; (3) good lettering has an orderly plan 
in its horizontal lining. 

In our first practice, there are two objections to 
printing the alphabet — the pupils always reach Z 
some minutes ahead of the teacher, who patiently 
plans and draws each letter at the board; and there is 
in printing the alphabet neither practice in grouping 
letters into words nor in separating one word from 
another. To overcome this difficulty, we might print, 
"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog." 
The merit in this sentence is that it contains all the 
letters in the alphabet; the objection is that the work 
when done is useless. 

The only reason for teaching lettering in school is 
that we want to use it. The best time to teach it 
is when we need it. If we have a sheet of drawing to 
label, or a title to put on a book-cover, this is the time 
to teach lettering. And all the lettering we need to 
teach just now is the word (or words) which we are 
to use. It is best to do this first upon practice paper, 
where we can make changes at will. This lettering, 
when corrected and satisfactory, may be copied or 
transferred onto the final sheet. To copy it, place 
the practice lettering just above the lines ruled on 
the final sheet to receive the lettering, then carefully 
draw each letter and word so that the spacings may 
be the same on both sheets. Thus we can always place 
our titles in the center from right to left on any page. 



228 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

To transfer a printed title, scrub over the back of 
the paper containing the practice lettering with a soft 
pencil; lay the paper right side up just where you want 
the title to appear on the final sheet, and mark over 
each letter as when making any tracing. 

Do not expect children to get good lettering in any 
way other than by copying. The alphabet is a stand- 
ard fixture in life, no amateur improvements should 
be allowed. The teacher should work out the whole 
word, title, or sentence on the board. First draw the 
guide lines lightly; then draw each letter with the 
same free, light trial lines which we used in object 
drawing. After all the words are sketched in this way, 
line in each letter as we do a drawing. Use firm lines 
and always slightly accent the end of each line in all 
the letters. (See lettering on Plates.) 

Where the words are to be colored in crayons or 
water-colors, it is wise to draw the letters with double 
lines, first drawing them with single lines. (Figure 9.) 
Do not try to teach your class more than one style of 
lettering, nor is it at all necessary to teach the small 
letters ("lower-case" letters, as the printer terms 
them). One style of capital letters is all that we can 
teach well, and all that we ever need to use in our 
school. 

Design 

I believe that the only way really to teach design 
is to make designs which are of use, and are used. 
The design should be made for the definite purpose of 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 229 

adding beauty to something which the boys and girls 
are to make for actual use. 

I do not believe in asking children to make borders 
or surface patterns for the sake of borders, surface 
patterns, or children. I do not believe that children 
in the grades should study or copy historic ornament. 
I do not believe that children should make designs 
which are purposely imitative of products of early 
civilization, Indian or savage (except where needed 
in correlation, and here it is for history's sake). I do 
not believe that children ever ought to be asked to 
make designs solely for the sake of learning principles, 
because principles are learned only through doing 
real work. I do not believe that children ought to be 
asked to make "make-believe" designs, as for rugs, 
vases, and wall-paper. 

I have stated these beliefs explicitly because I am 
aware that this confession of faith will not meet with 
universal approval. I have made these statements 
that the reader may observe, as we proceed, that all 
the work in design here given is what may be termed 
practical; none is given to teach theory, although 
theory is constantly used as background knowledge to 
help us to make good designs. This is quite in har- 
mony with previous discussion in this section of the 
book. We have space to consider a few specific prob- 
lems, some of which are possible in any schoolroom. 

The school booklet cover is a problem that is always 
with us. It is the final courtesy which we may bestow 



230 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

upon our work upon one thing; we will assemble and 
save the language, or nature study, or arithmetic 
sheets, or drawings. 

The cover is a worthy and keenly interesting prob- 
lem, if we consider the cover as indicative of its con- 
tents. Do not imagine that a successful cover can 
be made in one lesson. It is impossible. It will re- 
quire one lesson to discuss and sketch the symbols 
which properly may be used to enrich the cover; 
others to plan and sketch the margins, and the plac- 
ing of title and ornament; another to draw it care- 
fully; others to practice the application of color; and 
final lessons to transfer it to the final cover and to 
apply the color. The moral effect of doing one thing 
well is seldom overestimated. Let us consider several 
school covers which are possible as a whole, or in part, 
in any grade. 

Covers for a color book 

This may contain selected examples of the pupil's 
best work in color. The title, the most important ele- 
ment in the design, we will have white, because white 
light is the source of all color. Black indicates the 
opposite of white — the absence of all color; we may 
use it as a "little space of silence" for the margin line. 
Halfway between black and white is middle gray, 
another definite color standard, against which all 
colors, including the black and white, may be seen in 
their true value (their position in a scale from black 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 231 

to white). Therefore the cover may be of a paper 
middle gray in value. White light broken up through 
a glass prism, or in a rainbow, gives us red, orange, 
yellow, green, blue, and violet; hence these colors may 
be used with black and white in coloring the design. 

The first color cover in Plate XIV shows the sun, 
in symbol the circle, throwing light to the four points 
of the compass, and in the center are the rainbow 
colors. (The reader will have to imagine these colors; 
the expense of color reproduction is prohibitive.) 

The second color cover has a candelabrum holding 
six candles, symbols of Kght. The candles at the top 
are painted red, orange, yellow, and green; those at 
the base are blue and violet. This candelabrum is 
not fashioned to stand on the piano, but to lead up 
to and support the title, while its proportions are 
properly related to the space in which it is placed. 

The third color cover offers the white title, the black 
margin line, a soapbubble with its rainbow and re- 
flected rainbow, and the pupil's name. 

The fourth color cover has the title, margin line, 
and a monogram. The decorative element consists 
of a row of soapbubble pipes supporting bubbles; the 
first at the top is red, then orange, yellow, etc. At the 
bottom, the pipes and the order of colors are reversed. 

Covers for a clipping booklet 

This may be made as a portfolio, if preferred. 
(Plate XV.) The symbols employed are the scissors 







Plate XIV 



aippinQ5 



w 



ir-^iiiiiiiii^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiwr;;^ 
A l CLIPPINQSff 

^ ^iiiiniiiyiiiiiiiiiPiiiiiiiiiffs. J 



E 



A CUTTl^^a 





QEOQRAPHY 



Plate XV 




5PELLin(i 



0- 






COftOT 



BIIH 



OLIVE DRAnCH 



Plate XVI 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 235 

and the mucilage bottle; these with the title, margin 
line, and name, monogram, or initial, form the design. 
Notice that in the designs the title is seen first. It 
should dominate the page in position, size, color, in 
one or all, that the name of the book may be grasped 
instantly. 

Covers for geography notes 

Of course, a map or globe will persistently suggest 
itself as a suitable symbol for decoration for this 
cover. (Plate XV.) 

The second cover shows the explorer's ship on the 
unknown seas, appearing in silhouette in front of the 
rising sun, which is white. It is all worked out in out- 
line and simple colors; there is no attempt at light 
and shade, at naturalistic color, or at making a pic- 
ture. It is a sign, a symbol. The cover paper may be 
brown — of the earth. The title is in more or less in- 
tense orange, the color symbol of the wisdom got by 
searching; or orange-red, the red implying valor (in 
exploration) or love (of knowledge) . The other decora- 
tive elements will be properly related if halfway be- 
tween the title and background in color and value. 
The white is symbolic of light, the light of under- 
standing. 

Covers for a music hook 

This cover is to contain the words of our Morning 
Song "in my very, very best writing." The first illus- 



236 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

tration (Plate XVI) shows the sun and its rays 
(adapted to the form of the page) rising and shining 
around the horizon hne of the title. 

Covers for a spelling book 

In the back of the dictionary you will iBnd the early 
symbols which were the forefathers of our alphabet. 
Some of these are selected and grouped in an orderly 
manner for the decoration of this spelling book. 
(Plate XVI.) Tones of yellow (wisdom) or orange 
(knowledge) may be used for the color scheme. 

Covers for an arithmetic notebook 

In our system of notation, probably the figures 0, 
1, and 10 are the most important, because thej^ rep- 
resent zero, tens, hundreds, etc. We will use them 
as symbols. They are arranged to strengthen and 
decorate the corners of the double border lines. One 
figure 1 has been reversed for decoration effect, a 
perfectly legitimate procedure in designing. Arith- 
metic is an exact science; therefore our color scheme 
may consist of two or three tones of blue, the signif- 
icance of which is truth. 

Covers for a picture book 

Corot loved trees; hence our symbol, drawn in out- 
line and painted in simple colors. Corot's pictures 
are noted for their silver gray-greens. Need we say 
more as to the right color plan for this cover? 





A'^A 



EASTER- GREETinO 





EA3TER 

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Plate XVII 



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LOvt ntijACC LTLainv luc^ service faitmfuliesj CHAl/i 




5UQQ^bJl0n:> FOR. AURAHGEnEnTS 







♦ 






Plate XVlll 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 239 

It must be evident that the definite problem — to 
design a cover for one thing — limits us to the use 
of certain symbols, and that this very limitation helps 
us to solve the problems. It is always true that when 
one or two solutions of a problem are suggested in a 
schoolroom, the class feels confident that the entire 
field of original endeavor is exhausted. But let us 
look again! In any one of these problems but one or 
two symbols were employed; there are many others 
equally satisfactory. Or, suppose we can think of no 
new symbols, what then.? Why not try arrangijig the 
title and symbols on the color covers as the material 
is arranged in the geography, or spelling, or other 
covers? This gives us almost unlimited opportunity 
for something new. 

It here seems necessary to say a word of warning. 
The aim is not to get something new; it is to get some- 
thing worth while. The architect, or builder, who de- 
signed your schoolhouse did not aim to produce some- 
thing brand-new; he tried to design a school building. 
All the details of the building are reproduced from 
other buildings; he merely arranges them to meet 
certain conditions. This is all we ought to attempt 
to do in school. Let the teacher give the class, after 
discussion, the usable symbols, and several good ways 
of arranging them with reasons therefor, and the 
class will produce original designs based on the ideas 
of fitness and order. 

This is the plan to be followed in making designs 



240 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

for Easter cards (white and green), valentines (red or 
violet), Christmas cards (red and green), or Thanks- 
giving place cards (simple naturalistic colors). Plates 
XVII-XIX offer ample material with which to work. 
Let us remember that every design should be "pecu- 
liarly appropriate*' in idea, form, and color. 

Designs for a sofa cushion 

Of course there are many problems in design where 
symbols are unnecessary, as in a sofa cushion. This 
is a problem which may be worked out in the fifth 
grade or above. It is here given, not because it is 
expected that teachers everywhere will make cushions, 
but because the method of teaching may be applied 
to so many school designs. 

A half-yard of burlap, or similar material, is re- 
quired. The design may be outlined with silk floss, 
or it may be left with the original pencil showing as 
an outline for the color. The following plan of work 
has the merit of being possible with the dullest pupils 
— they can scarcely help learning something about 
design, nor can they avoid producing designs which 
are fairly good. 

To make successfully and combine decorative ren- 
derings of plant forms, producing them directly from 
nature, is a task requiring a very considerable degree 
of knowledge and skill. It is a problem rather beyond 
the average public school class and teacher. We will, 
therefore, disregard any one individual plant form, al- 



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Plate XIX 




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Plate XX 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 243 

though we must continually refer to Nature's ways 
of making her designs, for all we know about design 
has been learned from her. 

Our design is to be composed of two parts, the 
flower and the supporting stem. Both of these are 
quite unlike Nature's forms, but then, our cushion 
is quite unlike a flower-bed. Our problem is suitably 
to decorate a sofa cushion. 

We may begin by designing the flower forms, so- 
called, on a sheet of paper ruled off in two-inch 
squares. Our flowers are based on the square because 
this shape certainly will agree with the general lines 
of the cushion itself. Plate XX, Figure 1, shows how 
these designs may be made. Keep them simple, as 
we must bear in mind that the design is ultimately to 
be worked out on rough burlap. 

The second step is to be taken on a piece of nine 
by nine paper, which is to be folded sharply on its 
diameter and diagonals. Draw lightly a margin an inch 
or an inch and a half from the edge of the paper. (Fig- 
ure 2.) This paper is just one fourth the area of our 
cushion; hence all our measurements are half those 
of the final design — an inch margin now means two 
inches on the cushion. Somewhere inside this margin 
line, and confined to one of the one eighth folded divi- 
sions, we may draw one or more small squares, thus 
deciding upon the location of the flower forms, which 
almost always form the center of interest in the de- 
sign. (Figure 2.) These squares may now be sub- 



244, THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

divided into the flower units, each pupil selecting one 
from his sheet of units already drawn. (The teacher 
should go to the board and do all this upon a large 
scale. If the pupils copy her absolutely, there is no 
harm done. The first thing we want the class to under- 
stand is the manner of working out this design, and 
copying, for some, is the very best way to learn.) 

Having located and formed our flower form, it is 
next necessary to support them with stems. There 
is considerable freedom allowed us here, yet the stems 
should appear really to support the flowers, and should 
be related in movement with the margin lines or the 
folds of the paper. (Figure 2.) 

Perhaps, if we were working with a fourth-grade 
class, this would be enough to attempt. Adding other 
stems will add interest, if they are related to those 
already drawn on the paper, or to the folds of the 
paper (these folds being important directions in a 
square). We shall do well to draw our stems very near 
to those already drawn, and parallel to them, that the 
eye may follow the series with ease. Such a plan also 
leaves open spaces for the eye to get contrast and 
rest. Let us always remember to keep our center of in- 
terest the most important part of the design, building 
around that rather than about the portions of lesser 
importance. All joints may be connected strongly, 
as in nature, by curved corners, and the corners of 
the flowers ought also to be curved to be consistent 
with the stems. 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 245 

When we have finished this one eighth of our de- 
sign, and drawn it with black hnes, we may fold our 
paper on its diagonal, and by rubbing on the back 
with the unsharpened end of the pencil, transfer it 
to the adjacent eighth. (Figure 3.) Rub with the 
rounded corner of the pencil, not with the flat end. 
Now go over the transferred drawing and make the 
lines black. Then transfer, in like manner, the whole 
quarter, making the half; which, treated in the same 
way, will produce the whole. (Figures 4 and 5.) For 
the first time we may see how our whole design ap- 
pears. A class criticism will help at this point. The 
pupils will be entirely willing to try again and again; 
it is fascinating work. One is astonished to see how 
varied are the designs ! 

When the designs are finally accepted, we are to 
enlarge our quarter and transfer to the cloth. The 
enlarged pattern is made upon nine by nine paper, 
as formerly; only this paper now represents one quar- 
ter of the cushion, instead of the whole. Fold the 
paper on the diagonal only; draw one eighth as in the 
small design. This large eighth may be transferred 
to the adjacent eighth, as with the small drawing. 
Then cut off and out the superfluous paper, leaving 
the pattern. (Figure 6.) Note that in some places it 
has been necessary to leave small connecting links to 
hold the paper parts together. 

Our burlap measures eighteen by thirty-six inches; 
fold to show the diameter. Fit the pattern into one 



246 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

corner of the cloth, and hold it there with a few pins 
placed through into a drawing-board. With a soft 
pencil trace around the design. 

It is best to use burlap of a light color, as both the 
tracing and the painted design will show better on 
light than on dark cloth. Repeat drawing around the 
pattern until the design is complete. It may then be 
painted with water-colors, using a color like the cloth 
itself. This is the simplest plan, although any other 
orderly color scheme may be employed, if preferred. 
It will require about three tablespoons of mixed color 
to paint the entire design. As in nature, we may 
accent the color of the flowers, which will wonder- 
fully brighten the design. This is well done by using 
a hue a bit purer or more intense than that used for 
the stems. If carefully studied by the teacher, these 
two types of design^ — first those with forms having 
a symbolic meaning, and second, those with forms 
which have no particular meaning and are used be- 
cause they are appropriate in shape and color — will 
suggest the proper working-out of any school design 
problems. 

Correlations 

The following direct suggestions are made as to the 

correlation of drawing with other school work, that 

we may make drawing a subject of real use in the 

schoolroom : — 

Language and Literature. Proper margins on written 
work. Reproduction in picture or constructed form of stories 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 247 

told or dramatized. In the study of the Indian, Esquimo, 
Arab, etc., draw or make canoes, cradles, tents, palm trees, 
camels, etc. 

Music. Draw ladder and chart. 

Geography. Maps, directions, routes, mountains, rivers, 
harbors, lakes; commerce, boats, trains, wharves, depots, 
tunnels, dredges, breakwaters, canals; power used, man, 
animals, wind, steam, gasoline; means of communication, 
mail, telegraph, cable, telephone; reasons for locations of 
cities illustrated; public buildings. Let the children copy 
or trace, when necessary, from school books costumes, 
houses, animals, trees, etc., of different people and countries 
studied. Cut these out and combine on paper, blackboard, 
or sand table to form a group presentation.^ 

Arithmetic. In drill upon the circle, draw cent, nickel, 
dime, etc. In study of days of week and numbers, draw 
calendar. In comparison of lengths, draw straight lines, 
houses, fences, flags, etc. In measures, draw pints, quarts, 
etc. In studying numbers, draw houses and place given 
numbers on them. In fractions, draw pies, cakes, candies, 
fruits, and divide them into the required parts. Draw 
squares, oblongs, and right-angled triangles; later find their 
areas. Draw rectangles and triangles, in connection with 
the work in ratio. Draw foot and yard on the board. Draw 
the clock and indicate by the hands any given time. Draw 
square foot and square yard on the board. Use vertical and 
horizontal lines for absolute tests of well-arranged number 
work. 

The Seasons. Appropriate illustrative drawing or con- 
struction, for example, in winter, "Coasting," "Sliding on 
the Sidewalk," "Hockey on Ice," "The Snowstorm," 
"Shoveling Out," "The Sleighride." Cut out and make 
sleds, shovels, snow ploughs, sleighs, etc. 

The Holidays. Drawing may be made to serve or cele- 
brate the following or other special occasions: Columbus 
Day, Hallowe'en, Thanksgiving, Christmas, Lincoln Day, 

^ Described and illustrated fully in School Drawing, A Real Cor- 
relation, by F. H. Daniels. Published by Milton Bradley Com- 
pany, Boston, New York, San Francisco. 



248 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Valentines, Washington Day, Decoration Day, school plays 
and festivals, parents' day, graduation day. Draw, cut, 
make, and color place cards, gift cards, Christmas tree dec- 
orations, flags, shields, tents, drums, soldier hats, valen- 
tines, envelopes, etc. Illustrative drawings may be made 
relating to these occasions. 

Some of the above work should be done inciden- 
tally during other lessons, using drawing as a lan- 
guage in which to say certain things; at other times, 
carefully prepared drawings are to be made for use 
in other subjects; and again, the drawing is to be the 
ultimate result, as in illustrative drawing, flags, val- 
entines, etc. Whenever during the school year it 
seems wise to concentrate the drawing work about a 
center of interest related to school or home life, the 
teacher is advised, if allowable, to temporarily put 
aside the regular drawing outhne. Let us make our 
school drawing vitally related to school life. 

Picture Study 

This summary presents a complete outline for pic- 
ture study. It is obvious that it is too difficult for 
the lower grades, but it has seemed best to present 
the entire scheme and to suggest that each teacher 
adapt it to her class, omitting any parts which time 
or age of the children makes impracticable. 

Art is appreciated " according to the degree of knowl- 
edge possessed, and of the sensibility to the pathetic or 
impressive character of the thing known.*' (Ruskin.) 
Select one picture for study, preferably, but not neces- 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 249 

sarily, one hanging on the schoolroom walls. Accord- 
ing to grade, one or more points like the following, 
may be considered in class : — 

Suggestion. What is the story told in the picture? 
Is not this story interesting to you because you have 
had similar experiences? Does it appeal to the emo- 
tions? Does it suggest quiet, or peace, or movement, 
or energy, mother love, intelligence or faithfulness in 
animals, the gladsome message of Spring, the splen- 
dor of Autumn, the power or wonder of the sea? What 
does it mean? 

Interpretation. Does it not present clearly some 
phase of life or activity, one of Nature's moods? Is 
it not better told by drawing or painting than through 
literature, music, sculpture, or any other art? Is not 
reading or painting the best medium of expression by 
means of which certain truths may be intelligently 
presented? 

Idealization. In all probability there is more than 
suggestion and interpretation expressed in the pic- 
ture. It is a portrayal of the ideal. Nature suggests 
the ideal but rarely does more. For example. Sir 
Galahad and his horse as painted, are not drawings 
from one man and his horse, but a composite of the 
finest images which the artist has succeeded in storing 
up in his mind as the result of years of study from 
the best models of men and horses. The master- 
piece in art represents nature seen through an artis- 
tic temperament; that is, a temperament which has 



250 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

made it a life-work to study the best in nature and 
art. 

"For, don't you mark? we're made so that we love 
First, when we see them painted, things we have passed 
Perhaps a hundred times, nor cared to see. 
And so they are better painted — better to us, 
Which is the same thing. Art was given for that: 
God uses us to help each other so. 
Lending our minds out." 

Browning, Fra Lippo Lippi. 

Art through idealization enables us to see the 
beauty which nature suggests. 

Delight. Above all, believe that the painter paints 
because he loves the thing he paints, and loves to 
paint the thing he loves; believe that he knows that 
he has an ideal of beauty to reveal to the world; and 
the enthusiasm and joy which went into his work 
will be yours in proportion to your comprehension of 
his message. 

The energies of the pupil during this work may well 
be expended upon the production of a simple book- 
let; beautiful because well arranged, colored, and exe- 
cuted, containing an essay upon some one picture or 
painter. Material: for teachers, several prints of 
various pictures by the artist: for pupils, one or more 
penny pictures. Method: A plan for making a book- 
let is here given in detail, to be adapted to grade 
school: 1. Study of picture, other picture, by same 
artist, and the life of the painter. 2. Cut out and 
mount the picture and its name on paper of correct 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 251 

size and shape. 3. This mount dictates the size and 
shape of the booklet, all the pages to be the same. 
4. Lightly rule the margin lines for the written matter 
on the other pages for text. 5. The cover may be 
of gray drawing paper, bogus paper, or colored con- 
struction or cover paper. 6. The symbolism, arrange- 
ment of design elements and their coloring are sug- 
gested herein under the heading *' Design." 

The Grade Teacher and the Supervisors 

The excellent grade teacher, a composite here im- 
agined from many excellent teachers, may be heard 
to say: "As a grade teacher, I have fifteen subjects to 
teach. To do my work well I ought to know all there 
is to know about all of them. To acquire such knowl- 
edge I should have to Hve as long as the Sibyl of 
Cumse. Believe me. Madam Drawing Teacher, I am 
eager for all the help and inspiration you can give me. 
I believe we grade teachers, as a whole, are better 
teachers than our supervisors. This is not saying that 
we can teach drawing better! I am not sure but that 
we could teach it better if we could draw, but we 
cannot draw as you can (or ought to), and we depend 
upon you to do the thing you are employed to do, — 
we want you to show us how to draw, and to draw 
well. 

"If I alone fail to get the results you wish, it is 
because I am weak. If my sister teachers fail with 
me, it is because you are weak. Do us the justice to 



252 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

find out where the fault lies. We have a right to de- 
mand your sympathy and help. When I am blessed 
with a drawing teacher of the right sort, there is but 
one course of action open to me — I must do my ut- 
most to learn from her and to work with her. It would 
be my preliminary business to prepare materials for 
class and supervisor, — blackboard, chalk, paper, 
pencils, crayons, paint, paste, thumb tacks, — what- 
ever would be required. Why should our time be 
wasted, after the supervisor's arrival, in sending Mary 
to the next room for paste, John to the attic for draw- 
ing boards, or the janitor to the stockroom for paper? 
Why use ten minutes to put water in the paint cups, 
while all sit in melancholy idleness simply wasting 
time? Why institute "a frantic search for a paintbox 
which has color in it which has not petrified? Surely 
the supervisor will make more rapid progress before 
the class if he has paint which it is not necessary to 
thaw out! 

*'If the lesson is to be on nature drawing, I will not 
have the table covered with branches of impossible 
size. The children delight to prepare such things be- 
fore school or at recess. I will have the specimens 
cut to the right size and ready on each desk. 

"I will see that all materials are ready, because to 
do so is true economy. I shall gain nothing by leaving 
preparation until the last moment; I shall learn noth- 
ing by seeing the special teacher attend to it. By 
failing in what is my plain duty, I am robbing myself 



DRAWING AND APPLIED ART 253 

and the class by wasting the minutes during which she 
could be of service to us. 

"When opportunity offers, while the class is draw- 
ing with the supervisor, I will become a pupil and draw 
with the others. I will also make a record of the draw- 
ings, and notes of the helpful points of the lesson. 
I may want to give the same lesson next year, and the 
surest way to remember the method and illustrations 
is to etch them now on the motor brain centers through 
this physical activity. If, at another time, the super- 
visor goes about the room giving individual criticism, 
1 will go with her. If need be, I will often ask, ' Why? ' 
because I want to know. 

"All these things would I do because I see in the 
wisdom of my years that the doing of them will help 
me to make a just return to the community for my 
salary. I have lived long enough to learn that it does 
not pay to give short measure. No cry of mine that 
the town is too small, that the community is unre- 
sponsive, that the children are dull, or that the super- 
intendent does not recognize my talents, will aid my 
cause one jot, or move me toward a better position. 
I have learned that if my eyes see things askew, the 
fault is with my eyes. The world is plumb, and solid 
and right side up after all. My future rests with my- 
self, not with others. I have but to say, by the deed, 
*I will go on!' and on I shall go. Superintendents 
and principals are watching for my coming. They 
will travel leagues to meet me ! 



254 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

"Experience has taught me to appreciate the words 
of one of our seers: *A man is reheved and gay when 
he has put his heart into his work and done his best; 
but what he has said or done otherwise shall give him 
no peace. It is a deliverance which does not deliver.' " 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

1. On nature drawing : — 

Nature Draioing. Edited by Henry T. Bailey. 

2. On design : — 

Decorative Design (for the grades) . Lawrence and Sheldon. 
[ 3. On lettering : — 

Lettering. Thomas W. Stevens. 

4. On blackboard draioing : — 

Blackboard Drawing. Frederick Whitney. 

5. General : — 

a. How Children Learn to Draw. Walter Sargent. 

h. School Drawing, A Real Correlation. Fred H. Daniels. 

c. Construction Work for Schools Without Special Equipment. 
C. Edward Newell. 

d. The School Arts Magazine. A monthly periodical for 
teachers, published by The Davis Press, Worcester, 
Massachusetts. 



CHAPTER VI 

NATURE STUDY AND ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 
They are closely related 

Learning to live with Nature: learning to work 
with Nature — are not these the keynotes respectively 
of nature study and of agriculture study? The one 
brings us into interesting, sympathetic, and under- 
standing contacts with Nature; the other makes us 
co-workers with her for our own and others' benefit. 
But, whichever name we use, we are in both studies 
deahng primarily with Nature herself, not with books; 
although books are most helpful, yes, they are indis- 
pensable, if we will use them to supplement — rather 
than to take the place of — our own first-hand expe- 
riences. 

There is no clearly defined line separating nature 
study from agriculture. The successful farmer is a 
student of Nature no less than the botanist and the 
ornithologist. The old farmer, to whom all the other 
farmers for miles around went to buy their cabbage 
plants, confirms this view. When asked if he was not 
afraid of the growing competition in market garden- 
ing, he replied, **No, I've been raising cabbage plants 
for nigh onto fifty years, and I just found out some- 
thing this spring about them I never knew before. 



^6 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Next year I '11 get the jump on every one in the busi- 
ness." 

Nature study may be so taught that from the be- 
ginning children are developing this purposeful interest 
in Nature and at the same time are being trained in 
skillful cooperation with her in growing those products 
that are useful to mankind. Moreover, agriculture 
cannot be learned in any other way. In the pages of 
this chapter suggestions are made to show how ma- 
terial may be selected and used to these ends. 

Grades I-III 

Pupils of primary school age are interested in liv- 
ing things — trees, plants, animals. They care little 
about inanimate things, such as stones, soils, etc. 
Each season provides for the teacher the suitable 
living subjects for study. But the material is so pro- 
fuse that she must choose. 

Trees 

In spring and fall perhaps the most appealing call 
of Nature is made by the trees. In the spring the buds, 
bursting into flower and leaves; and in the autumn, 
the nuts and the colored and falling leaves command 
and hold the attention. Teachers should take advan- 
tage of the children's instinctive interest in these 
things. Whether she takes up nature study in spring 
or fall she will naturally begin with the trees. 

Suppose the teacher starts with the maple tree. 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 257 

She should go with her pupils to the trees themselves. 
Don't begin with books and pictures. Leave them 
until they know the trees first-hand. They can sense 
the beauty of their symmetrical forms and understand 
why they are used for shade and ornament. They 
can see the characteristic shape of the leaves and note 
the bark. Then from books they may learn about the 
sap of the sugar maple, and from parents and teach- 
ers they may gather some information about the use 
of maple wood in making floors, interior finish, and 
furniture. 

The colored maple leaves may be used in the 
autumn for decorative purposes in the schoolroom. 
They may be mounted by the children and thus used 
in seat and hand work. They may be used as patterns, 
the children drawing outlines and attempting to imi- 
tate the colorings of Nature. 

The teacher need not wait until the appearance of 
autumn leaves before she begins her work with trees. 
She has prepared a list of trees with which she wants 
her pupils to become familiar during the fall months. 
She may plan a field trip or a walk into the woods with 
the purpose in mind of teaching one or two trees — 
maple and tulip, maple and oak, evergreens and de- 
ciduous trees, etc. By skillfully directing the atten- 
tion of the children she may lead them to observe the 
particular species she has in mind. The tulip tree, 
because of its tall straight trunk, large broad leaves 
and characteristic bark, is conspicuous. The maple 



258 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

with its spreading branches and distinctive leaf form 
is easily distinguished. During the walk, or out-of- 
door lesson, after the attention of the children has been 
directed to the trees that are being taught, there 
might be an interesting game played in which other 
trees of the same kind will be found. Leaves from 
both maple and oak, if these are the trees that are 
being studied, may be taken back to the classroom 
by the children. The leaves may be mixed up and, as 
a seat exercise, each child may be given a number of 
leaves to sort or group according to kind and name. 
The children may check each other's work. They 
should not be called upon to describe the leaves as to 
their shape or texture, for this is a diflScult thing to 
do unless one is familiar with the necessary technical 
terms. 

During the winter months a review of the trees 
studied in the autunm may be made and the children 
may be taught how to distinguish and name the trees 
when they are bare. Other types may be studied, such 
as the evergreens, if there are any in the vicinity of 
the school. 

The spring months offer an opportunity to learn the 
trees from the blossoms. There should also be fre- 
quent field lessons for the purpose of making observa- 
tions of the opening of the leaf buds as well as for 
studying the flowers. Have the children note that 
some trees are in blossom before the leaves appear 
while others put forth the leaves before the blossoms. 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 259 

Fruit trees and flowering shrubs should be observed 
and studied as well as forest and shade trees. 
' In dealing with a group of children representing 
practically three grades the teacher will find that some 
have much more knowledge and will be able to do 
considerably more advanced work than others in the 
group. This fact should be taken advantage of. The 
older boys and girls, if properly directed, would fur- 
nish the school with samples of wood from the varieties 
of trees that are being studied. These could be used 
for recognition tests. Games in recognizing the differ- 
ent kinds of wood could be planned and the children 
could learn to test one another's knowledge. 

The teacher should keep a list of the trees that are 
studied that her work may have plan and purpose and 
also that she may not dupHcate her work from year 
to year. The common trees of her neighborhood will 
furnish all the material a teacher will need for tree 
study. 

Flowers 

It will scarcely be necessary to arouse or even 
stimulate the interest of children in flowers. Interest is 
there already, but it will require guidance. The com- 
mon wild flowers of the neighborhood should be the 
objects of study in the field lessons. The children 
should be encouraged to take flowers to school and 
arrange them in the most attractive way for decorat- 
ing the room. Each lesson will provide the desired 
material . 



260 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

While on the excursion the children should be led 
to observe the most striking characteristics of the 
flowers that are selected for study. They should note 
that the arbutus grows in dark places under the leaves, 
the jack-in-the-pulpit in shady and damp places, the 
goldenrod by the roadside and in vacant lots, etc. 
These observations should become the subjects for 
conversation and oral language. The simpler names 
should be used in the spelling lessons. In the winter 
months plants should be growing in the schoolroom 
and the children should be made responsible in turn 
for their care. Ferns, palms, geraniums, hyacinths, 
etc., are good for schoolroom growing. The children 
can easily be interested in making contributions of 
boxes, flower-pots, dishes, etc., in which to grow the 
plants. They should help in getting the right kind of 
soil, in potting the ferns, in slipping and rooting the 
geraniums, and in deciding upon the proper placing in 
windows. 

Plan ahead for the study of spring flowers. The 
children will probably discover the first evidences of 
spring. Be prepared to correlate the study of nature 
with the language lessons and the teaching of mem- 
ory gems. Keep a chart of flowers in the order in 
which they are brought to school by the children. 
Jack-in-the-pulpit will suggest Clara Smith's Jack 
in the Pulpit; the violet will suggest Dinah Maria 
Muloch Clark's Violet; the dandelion, Helen Gray 
Cone's Dandelions; the daisies, Frank Dempster 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 261 

Sherman *s Daisies. Each flower and every natural 
phenomenon has its lesson or poetic suggestion and 
these early years of childhood is the time to make 
this connection. 

Birds 

During the latter days of autumn pupils should be 
led to observe the departure of the migratory birds, 
and in the spring have them note their return. Those 
birds that remain through the winter should be ob- 
served and their names may be learned. Take the 
children into the fields. Have them see and name the 
kinds of birds that gather in flocks. Call attention to 
the food they are eating, noticing whether they are 
in grain fields, among weeds, or in the trees that bear 
fall berries. 

Tell the children or read to them stories of the mi- 
gration of the birds to warmer climates. Lead them 
to see and name those that remain during the winter 
and get them to think and ask questions about such 
things as, how the birds keep warm and how they find 
enough to eat. The children can plan ways to feed 
the birds around their homes and in the neighborhood 
of the school. If they put crumbs, bones, suet, grains, 
etc., where the birds may find them near the school, 
it will not be long before the birds will go to school as 
regularly as the pupils do. 

The spring is the time not only to note the return 
of the migratory birds, but to become interested in 



262 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

the songs of birds and their home-building. During 
two or three weeks a Httle time each day may be 
given properly to informal reports by pupils and 
teacher of what they have heard and seen in the out- 
of-door world. 

Plan to have bird-houses made by the boys and 
placed near the school or their homes and then have 
them watch the birds that build their nests in these 
houses. This study and care of the birds will do more 
to train the children to protect them, their nests, and 
their young than any amount of precept that might 
be given. 

In a field lesson the songs of birds might be studied 
and the children might learn to distinguish the kinds 
of birds by their call songs. Some very young chil- 
dren become extremely keen in making such observa- 
tions. 

If they have seen the swallow building her nest in 
the rafters or eaves of the barn and reported on it, 
Edwin Arnold's The Swallow's Nest would be an ap- 
propriate memory gem for them to learn. If they 
have told about a nest of young robins that they have 
discovered near their home, talk with them about the 
little birds, and, when they are in the true spirit, 
have them learn Tennyson's Little Birdie, The blue- 
bird will suggest Emily Huntington Miller's The Blue- 
bird. 

Lessons on the usefulness of birds should also be 
presented. Take the children into the fields at the 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 263 

time of ploughing and have them watch to see what 
the birds eat, how they get their food, and what and 
how they feed their young. 

These suggestions might be indefinitely multiphed. 
Enough have been given to indicate the method of 
procedure. 

Gathering nuts and seeds 

Children naturally react to every seasonal change. 
In the autumn it is as natural for them to be inter- 
ested in seeds and to gather nuts as it is for the squir- 
rels. These instincts should be fostered. Go with 
them into the fields and woods, be interested in the 
things that interest them, and encourage each child 
to bring these things to school. Let the gathering 
of nuts form one of the matters of school concern. 
The butternut, the walnut, hickory nut, chestnut, 
hazelnut, and the horse chestnut may be taken to 
school and used in seat work. Have the children learn 
to recognize them and become familiar with their 
uses. 

Common seeds and grains should be presented. The 
children should be taken to the harvest fields and en- 
couraged to make collections of samples of common 
grains such as wheat, oats, rye, corn, and buckwheat. 
Specimens should be found in every class-room. As 
a part of hand work the children might make paper 
or pasteboard trays in which their specimens could be 
displayed or it might be possible for them to secure 



264 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

small bottles of uniform shape and size to be used 
for this purpose. Have common vegetable seeds col- 
lected and studied. Now direct the minds of the 
children to the growing plant or vegetable and its 
uses. They should become able to recognize the vari- 
ous kinds. 

If there are opportunities for planting seeds on the 
school lot, the work of the autumn and winter months 
should lead naturally to the school garden. The plans 
for this type of work should be carefully thought out. 
The plot should be selected to secure fertility, adapta- 
bility to crops, good light and drainage. In making 
the selection of site all the children in the school might 
take a part and the efforts of the older boys could very 
easily be enlisted when it came to digging and pre- 
paring the soil for planting. Care should be exercised 
in selecting the varieties of vegetables to be grown, 
and in schools where there is no opportunity for super- 
vision of the gardens during the summer months only 
such vegetables should be grown as will mature be- 
fore the summer vacation begins or shortly after. The 
crop is the natural reward of the garden. (See under 
Grades VII and VIII for further suggestions regard- 
ing the garden.) 

Each child should be made to feel that he has a 
part in this enterprise and should have some definite 
task assigned him to perform. The older pupils should 
perform the heavier tasks and the younger ones should 
feel that they are acting as helpers. 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 265 

Insects 

Some common examples of interesting insect life 
are the butterfly, ant, honey bee, tent-caterpillar, 
potato beetle, etc. It may be that the tent-cater- 
pillar was so numerous during the spring and early 
summer months that it became a pest. If this was so 
the teacher has an opportunity to relate her nature- 
study to a community problem. The teacher should 
become familiar with the life history of the insect. 
She should be able to follow it from the egg through 
the larva stage to the cocoon and finally to the moth 
that lays the egg. This story and life history should 
be studied and observed by the children. In the late 
summer or fall, after the egg-masses have been de- 
posited by the moth, they should be taught how to 
find them that they may be destroyed. In the fall 
have the children take the larvae of various types of 
moths and caterpillars to school. Have them placed 
in boxes or cases with fresh leaves where they can be 
V, atched. After the insects have passed into the pupa 
state they should be carefully put aside in some safe 
place and with the approach of spring brought out 
for observation. The successive changes are full of 
interest to the children. They should be encouraged 
to look for cocoons in the field, on the roadside, along 
old fences, in dark corners, to ask questions about 
them, and to relate to their classmates where and 
how they were discovered. 



266 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Grades IV-VI 
From nature study to agriculture 

In these grades the emphasis is still on what may be 
called companionship with Nature, but there should 
be a somewhat more definite trend toward practical 
ends than is desirable in the previous grades. 

To illustrate: When in the first three grades we 
studied insects, we properly selected butterflies be- 
cause of their beauty and their interesting develop- 
ment from caterpillars. But in the intermediate grades 
we would more wisely select bees for study because 
of their honey-making or because they help flowering 
plants to produce fruit. Or we study the cabbage- 
moth because of the relation to the cabbages growing 
in the home or school garden. Again the very young 
child is attentive to the robin because of its color, song, 
or nest, while the older child may be easily interested 
in the robin as a destroyer of insect pests. 

When pupils have reached the fourth grade they 
are able to take responsibility in raising things. It 
may be a garden, pigeons, hens, a calf, or a pig, but 
whatever it is, let him or her assume a definite, if 
small, responsibility in its care. 

The project method of instruction 

A project is any piece of productive work that is 
organized in the school where instruction and direc- 
tion are given, and carried into execution at home. . 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 267 

This is now recognized to be the only effective way 
to teach agriculture. But it is not fully applicable in 
the Intermediate Grades, nor even in the Seventh 
and Eighth Grades. Yet in an informal way and to a 
degree it may be applied in both groups of grades. 
In Grades IV- VI pupils may have their individual 
projects that they may carry on at school or at home 
while the more general nature study work suggested 
for Grades I-III is systematically extended through 
the regular class work. This type of work, in which 
learning and the application of knowledge go hand 
in hand with the realizing of a useful product, may 
be carried still farther in the last two grades of the 
elementary school, and this we will now proceed to 
consider. 



Grades VII and VIII 

The garden project 

No agricultural project offers greater possibilities 
perhaps than the school or home garden, therefore, 
while other kinds of projects may be undertaken, we 
shall use this as a type and discuss it somewhat in 
detail. 

The planting and cultivating of a garden will in- 
volve: — 

(1) Selecting the site and deciding upon the size and 
shape of the plot. 
(The soil, drainage, and exposure to the sun 



268 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

will be matters for consideration in selecting the 
site.) 

(2) A study of the vegetables that are to be grown. 

(Pupils should learn the names of the vege- 
tables selected for growing. They should also 
know the times for planting, the length of time 
required for maturing, and the character of cul- 
tivation required.) 

(3) A study of the preparation of soil for planting, 
fertilizing, cultivating, methods of preparing 
and planting various kinds of seeds, the control 
of insect pests, and plant diseases. 

(4) A study of harvesting and care of crops. 

(5) A study of the value of records and how to keep 
them. 

Motives in gardening 

Perhaps most people have a garden for the sake of 
the crops. They are willing to work for the satisfac- 
tion they get out of the crisp lettuce, the delicious peas 
and beans, the tasty radishes, etc., "right from their 
own garden." 

Others are more interested in the financial profit 
that comes with a good harvest of potatoes, green 
corn, etc. 

And again there are those who have a garden be- 
cause they love the soil and delight to cultivate it. 
Helping things to grow and seeing them grow are 
ample rewards for all their labor. The products, and 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 269 

the money profits may not be overlooked, but they 
are so much added to the prime satisfaction. 

All of these are proper motives and all should be 
recognized by the teacher. Any one of them may be 
the needed spur to set a boy or girl to work at an 
educating task. And here it may be noted that gar- 
dening such as is here recommended is for both girls 
and boys. 

A perspective view 

The work in elementary agriculture, like that in 
nature study, should be governed by the seasons. 
The school interest and study should run parallel 
with the farming activity of the community. It is 
evident that no one outline can be an exact calendar 
schedule for all schools, but the following gives the 
necessary sequence of interests, even if the months 
in which these interests are placed require local re- 
arrangement. 

January and February 

1. Selecting the garden site. 

2. Planning the garden. 

3. Study of 

a. Fertilizing. 

b. Cropping. 

c. Tools and implements to be used. 

4. Seed-setting. 

March 

1. Study of hot-beds. 

2. Study of cold-frames. 

3. Preparation of soil for seeding. 

4. Testing soil for acidity. 



270 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

April and May 

1. Preparation of seed-bed. 

2. Planting. 

3. Transplanting. 

4. Cultivation. 

5. Thinning. 

6. Insect pests. 

7. Plant diseases. 

8. Plant propagation. 

June and July . 

1. Continue cultivation. 

2. Continue insect pests. 

3. Begin work of judging products. . 

August 

1. Continue care and cultivation. 

2. Study late planting. 

3. Harvesting. 

4. Study of types. 

Autumn months 

1. Continue harvesting. 

2. Continue study of types. 

3. Plans for fall festivals and exhibits of products. ' 

4. Begin to think about next year's garden. 

a. Seed-saving. 

b. Fertilizer. 

c. Rotation cropping. 

Such an outline as the one suggested above might 
be called the "Garden Calendar," or the "Agricul- 
tural Calendar." It, or one like it, might be prepared 
and hung in a conspicuous place in the schoolroom 
for the children to consult as the work progresses or 
as they look forward to the next step in their work. 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 271 

From their own knowledge they might suggest where 
it should be somewhat modified to suit the climatic, 
weather, or other conditions of their particular sec- 
tion or locality. 

January and February 

January and February are the months when there 
will be no out-of-door gardening. Selecting the gar- 
den site and making the garden plan have been dis- 
cussed above and may constitute a part of the work 
of these months. 

It is impossible in a short chapter to treat all the 
subjects that relate to successful agriculture, or to 
treat any one subject adequately. All that is here 
attempted is to point to a few of the matters that are 
of particular interest to the elementary school teacher. 
First a word about 

The school garden 

This is often a failure because too much is attempted, 
because the conditions are not right, and because the 
hmitations of a school garden are not recognized. 

Let us admit at the outset that a school garden 
should not be planned to continue beyond the close of 
the spring term. The vacation garden is a project 
quite distinct from the ordinary school garden. It 
has its place. It is very valuable for the children who 
can cultivate it during the summer months, but it 
needs special supervision that the regular teacher can- 
not give. 



272 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

The real value of a school garden lies in the fact 
that it is a means of introducing children to system- 
atic, thoughtful cultivation of the soil and to the rais- 
ing of crops. Those vegetables and flowers should 
therefore be planted that will mature before the 
school closes for the summer vacation. 

The school garden is a sort of laboratory where 
children are taught the "what to do" and "how to 
do it." Experience has proved that in many thou- 
sands of instances the school garden is the forerunner 
of the home garden. In fact, if the one does not lead 
directly to the other, it has been to a large degree a 
failure and a teacher may measure her success in this 
subject by the proportion of pupils who start home 
gardens. 

We will now pass to the consideration of some of 
the subjects that occur in the "Perspective View" 
given on a previous page. 

Selecting the garden site 

Whether it is a school garden or a home garden it 
should be planted in the best available spot. Children 
should not be handicapped in their first attempts at 
gardening by a location in which an adult would 
probably fail. Select a spot that as far as possible 
answers affirmatively the following questions : — 

1. Is it level? 

2. Is the soil light? That is, does it pulverize easily? 

3. Is it well drained? That is, does the water after a rain 
soak through the soil and flow away? 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 273 

4. Is it where the sun can warm all parts of it? Do not 
have it where trees or buildings will shade it for part 
of the day. 

5. Is the soil rich? 

Planning the garden 

Having selected the site, a carefully thought-out 
plan for the garden should be made. It should be 
rectangular in shape and longer than it is wide. Each 
child should measure his own piece of land under 
supervision and draw a plan or map of it. It should 
be drawn to scale, using the inch, one-half inch, one- 
quarter inch, or one-eighth inch according to the size 
of the plot. As many details as time and the age and 
ability of the child will permit may be put in the map. 
All this will not only be good preparation for the 
garden instruction but it will be good practice in the 
application of measurements, map drawing, and me- 
chanical drawing. 

The drawing periods in the daily program may very 
properly be devoted to this during the month preced- 
ing the planting time. Many details may be put into 
the plan, such as the points of the compass, the path 
leading to the garden, the location of trees, fences, 
buildings, or the location of such permanent things 
in the garden as rhubarb, currant bushes, etc. 

Now the vegetables or flowers to be grown must be 
selected. For beginners two or three kinds are better 
than a large variety. A suggestive list is here given 
from which selections may be made for the first gar- 



274 



THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 



den. Further hints are given in "A Seed Chart' 
under ^^ Planting the Seeds''' 

musk 



i string 

Beans •< shell 

( hma 



( early 
Cabbages I mid-summer 
(late 



Melons 



water 



( early 
Peas I mid-summer 
(late 



Carrots \ 



Com 
(sweet) 



early 
late 

r early 

-j mid-summer 

(late 



Squashes 

Cucumbers 

Lettuce 

Radishes 



Spinach 
Tomatoes 



summer 
winter 



A variety of other questions follow close on the heels 
of the decision as to what we shall plant: — 

1. How much room does each plant or hill need? 

2. How long does it take to grow? 

3. If radishes are grown, or lettuce, how many times and 
when should it be planted to keep a continuous crop? 

4. What varieties are best for early and late planting? 

5. How much seed is needed? 

While planning the garden the necessary tools 
should not be forgotten. The winter months is the 
time when the wide-awake farmer sees to it that his 
tools, machinery, and equipment are in proper con- 
dition for use. The home or school gardener should 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 275 

use the same foresight. Much of the garden equip- 
ment needed may be made in the school or at the 
home, such as 

Seed-testers. Tomato racks. 

Garden line. Bird-houses. 

Stakes for making rows. Hand-weeders. 

Marker for making rows. Plant protector from insects. 

Paper pots for plants. Hot-beds. 

Cold-frames. Sign-board for garden. 

Preparing for work in agriculture by making part 
of the equipment will give an application to the manual 
training work of the school. 

Testing seeds 

The farmer or gardener should use the utmost care 
in the selection of seed and should plant none that 
has not shown by actual tests to be fit for use. Many 
causes may be responsible for weak or useless seed, 
such as weak growth of the mother plant, rainy 
weather at harvest time, age, poor storage condi- 
tions, etc. 

Seed testing is a very simple matter and is highly 
instructive while at the same time it is an extremely 
interesting operation for children. It is advisable with 
children of school age to confine the tests to the larger 
seeds such as corn, beans, or peas. Possibly the older 
ones might test beet, radish, onion, and the like. Sev- 
eral methods of testing are used any one of which is 
within the grasp and ability of the child to apply. 
Two methods are here described. 



g76 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Method No. 1 — for beans 

Count out one hundred beans at random. Place 
them on a blotter or piece of flannel that has been 
moistened, then place this on a plate, cover with a 
piece of paper, and lay on another piece of moistened 
blotting paper or flannel. Lay over this a piece of 
glass or cover with an inverted plate. This should be 
kept in a moderately warm place. After a few days, 
when the seeds have had time to sprout, remove them 
and divide them into groups according to vitality as, 
goody those with long vigorous sprouts; /air, those with 
less vigorous sprouts; poor, those indicating only very 
low vitality; and dead, those showing no growth. 
Determining percentage of germination will offer ex- 
cellent opportunity for the application of principles in 
arithmetic. 

Method No. 2 — jor corn 

Take a box about two and one-half feet square and 
about three inches deep. Fill it half full with sawdust, 
sand, or light soil. Mark the surface off into twenty- 
five equal squares and number them. Moisten the 
contents of the box. Take twenty-five ears of corn, 
tag and number them corresponding to the numbers 
of the squares. Select at random six kernels from 
each ear. Put the kernels from ear 1 on square 1 and 
so on until all have been placed. Press them into the 
soil sprout end down. Place a piece of moistened 





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A PAGE FROM A WELL-KEPT ACCOUNT BOOK 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 277 

cloth over the box. Keep the box in a warm place and, 
if necessary, moisten the cloth occasionally. In five 
or six days germination should have taken place. 
Remove the covering and examine the seeds. It will 
be perfectly easy to decide the vitality of each ear. 

The actual work in seed-testing will necessarily have 
to be done by the older boys and girls in the school, 
but the yoimger pupils may assist and learn much by 
watching. 

Seed and vegetable identification 

At the time that work in the testing of seed is being 
done it would add interest and at the same time be of 
practical value to do some work in seed identification. 
If the teacher will make a careful test of the children's 
knowledge of the common seeds, she will in all prob- 
ability be greatly surprised to find how many there 
are who cannot identify with certainty the common 
farm and garden seeds. They will probably know corn, 
but will not be able to name the varieties, or to dis- 
tinguish between the varieties and name them with 
accuracy. 

Small quantities of the kinds of seeds used on the 
farms and in the gardens of the community should 
be secured and arranged in such a way as to display 
them in the school so that the children may become 
familiar with them and be able to tell from their 
shape, size, color, and surface the kind of seed they 
are handling. 



278 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

So many splendid cuts and pictures of garden and 
farm products are available for use that it would not 
be a difficult task to teach the identification of fruits 
and vegetables even before they are grown. This work 
might be done in the lower grades in connection with 
geography and language work. While the older pupils 
are working with seed and making their tests prelim- 
inary to making up their seed order, the younger pupils 
may be studying the pictures and illustrations in the 
seed catalogues. When there is no longer use for the 
catalogues, the pictures could be cut out by the pupils 
and used for occasional identification reviews. 

Hoi-beds and cold-frames 

The hot-bed is for starting early vegetables. The 
cold-frame is for hardening plants for transplanting 
in the open. 

How to make a hot-bed. Get a window sash. Dig 
a pit about three feet deep in a sheltered spot, facing 
south or east, a little larger over than the window sash. 
Line the pit with heavy plank, concrete, or boards. If 
boards are used, straw or leaves must be packed around 
the outside to keep out the cold. The frame should be 
built to fit the window sash and be raised about half 
a foot higher at the back than at the front so that it 
will catch all the sunlight possible. 

During the early part of March get a quantity of 
fresh horse manure. Mix it with about half as much 
dry leaves and leave the mixture in a pile to ferment. 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 279 

When the pile begins to send off steam, turn it over 
and leave it in a pile until it begins to steam again. 
This is the second fermentation and should be finished 
in a few days. Now throw the manure into your pit 
to the depth of about two and one-half feet and tread 
it down to a depth of two feet. The more evenly 
you distribute the manure, the better your hot-bed 
will be. 

Now scatter over the manure a good covering of 
air-slaked lime. This will kill all slugs, worms, and 
other harmful growth, and will keep the soil that you 
now put on free from pests. On top of the lime shovel 
four to five inches of rich, sifted loam. Hang a ther- 
mometer on the inside of the frame and put on the 
window sash. 

When the thermometer registers seventy to seventy- 
five degrees and remains steadily at that point, it is 
time to plant your seeds. Sow them, covering lightly 
with sifted loam. Keep the surface moist by occasional 
watering with a finely perforated watering pot. When 
the shoots appear, raise the sash a little during the 
warm part of the day to give air to your plants. 

When the plants begin to crowd, thin them out or 
transplant them into small boxes or pots and place 
them in the cold-frame. 

The cold-frame is made like the hot-bed except that 
no manure is used. It has no bottom heat. 

Some plants transplant easily, such as cabbages, 
cauliflower, kohl-rabi, Brussels sprouts, tomatoes. But 



280 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

other plants like eggplant and head lettuce are more 
sensitive. 

Death from transplanting is often due to too many 
leaves. Such plants as onions, beets, celery, and cab- 
bage to a certain extent should be "speared," that is, 
have their leaves or tops cut back. Here is an excellent 
opportunity to teach use of leaves, and the relation 
between the leaves and the root system of a plant. 

Preparing the seed-bed 

To succeed with a garden one must not only have 
it located in a sunny place, where there is good drain- 
age, but the soil must be properly prepared or the 
seeds and plants will starve to death. The soil must 
be mellow, free from lumps, well filled with decaying 
vegetable matter and with enough moisture to dis- 
solve the plant food. Plants must have their food in 
liquid form or they cannot take it up from the soil 
through their roots. Then, too, the soil must be free 
from acid. Let us take these fundamental things in 
turn. 

How may we make the soil mellow ? The farmer 
ploughs it and harrows it, until the seed-bed is soft 
and well pulverized. The spade, or fork, and the 
rake will do for the small plot what the plough and 
the harrow do for the large plot. But you must not 
be afraid of work. Push the spade well down into the 
earth and turn the under soil up to the sunlight and 
air. If the lumps do not readily break in pieces when 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 281 

you strike them, you had better wait until the ground 
is drier. Work in preparing your seed-bed will have 
its reward at harvest time. 

How may the soil be made rich in plant food? The best 
plant food is contained in decaying vegetable matter, 
therefore put over your seed-bed, before you spade it, 
two hundred to three hundred pounds of stable ma- 
nure for a plot twenty by thirty feet. If you cannot 
get stable manure, or not enough to properly feed your 
plants, use fertilizers that you can buy at the store. 

In the study of commercial fertilizers the teacher 
has a splendid opportunity to correlate her work with 
geography and also with arithmetic. The child may 
read in his geography that nitrate comes from South 
America. That will mean but little to him. But if he 
learns that nitrate is essential to his having a good 
garden or his father's having a good crop he becomes 
interested and he will care more about it if he is told 
that it comes from South America. If he is told that 
from eighty to one hundred pounds of sodium nitrate 
should be used to the acre, he will want to know how 
big an acre is and how much he will want for his gar- 
den. That will be the time to teach measurements as 
applied to that subject. Go to the garden with the 
child, have him measure it, draw a plan of it, find the 
area and find out what part of an acre he has. That 
tells him what part of eighty or one hundred pounds 
he will need. 

Crop refuse may be used for fertilizer unless the 



282 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

crops were diseased, in which case it should be care- 
fully burned. 

The amount of moisture in the soil will be deter- 
mined largely by the location of the plot and the 
character of the soil. More is said on this point un- 
der "Cultivation." 

Is the soil acid f Buy some litmus paper at the drug 
store. Take a small amount of the soil and put it in a 
box or basin. Moisten it with water till it is quite wet, 
then place part of the litmus paper in the soil and leave 
it for a few minutes. If the paper turns from blue to 
red it indicates that the soil is acid. Lime applied 
will neutralize the acid. From five hundred pounds to 
one ton per acre is usually a sufficient amount at one 
time. If clover and the other leguminous crops fail 
to grow it is an indication that the soil is acid. In 
making this study the pupils should be encouraged to 
make observations and tests on their home farms and 
gardens. 

Seeds should not be planted before the times speci- 
fied in the chart. No time is gained by putting seeds 
into ground that is too cold for them. Follow also 
the directions of the chart as to depth of planting 
and distance apart. 

Cultivation and thinning 

When the green plants appear above the sm-face of 
the ground the successful farmer begins to till or culti- 
vate his garden. 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 283 



Planting the seed 






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284 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

This cultivation consists in stirring the surface of 
the ground to a depth of two to three inches. If you 
have a large garden it is economical to do this with a 
horse-cultivator. For a small garden a hand-culti- 
vator or a rake may be used. By thus stirring the soil 
a sort of powdery blanket is formed over the surface of 
the garden. This blanket causes several results favor- 
able to the growing plants: — 

1. It prevents the moisture in the soil from evaporating. 
A hard crust of earth is full of pores that draw the 
water from below to the surface where it escapes into 
the air. The pulverized dirt does not have this draw- 
ing power or capillarity, as it is called. 

2. Air, light, and warmth can pass through this blanket 
to the plant roots better than it can through hard, 
crusty soil. 

3. This blanket compels the roots to grow downward in 
search of water, where they are less liable to be in- 
jured by the hoe or rake and where in dry times they 
will not be withered. 

4. If a farmer keeps a good mellow blanket of loose, fine 
soil over his garden, he must cultivate it so often that 
no weeds will have a chance to live. 

To keep this blanket in proper condition it is neces- 
sary to cultivate the garden every week during parts 
of the growing season and at other times every two 
weeks. 

But as the plants grow they must be watched to see 
that they do not crowd or that there is not too much 
waste space. If they crowd one another, their growth 
is stunted. If some of the seeds have not sprouted, 
your crop will be smaller than you had hoped. 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 285 

There is much loss on the farm and in the garden 
from these two causes. The second condition is usually 
caused by the farmer using poor or dead seed. That 
can be overcome by a careful seed test. The other is 
caused by using more seed than is actually needed 
and then not taking the trouble to thin properly. 
All excess stalks of corn on an acre are nothing more 
or less than weeds. This principle is illustrated in the 
garden. It is useless to try to raise good beets if the 
plants are allowed to grow too thick. Have the chil- 
dren study their "Seed Chart" for the purpose of 
finding out how far apart the different kinds of plants 
should be grown. Take them to near-by corn fields 
where they may make observations. 

There is an economic principle that should be 
taught here. It costs just as much to plough, plant, 
and cultivate an acre of corn where there is a sixty- 
or seventy-five per cent stand of stalks as it would 
cost if there were a ninety-five per cent stand. 

In a small garden these difficulties may be remedied 
by transplanting the plants that are crowding to the 
vacant spaces where the seeds or plants have died. 

Fighting plant enemies 

Plant enemies are of two kinds, insects and diseases. 

The early nature study lessons should have made 
the children somewhat acquainted with a few of the 
more common insect pests. But when the children 
have gardens of their own they will meet these pests 



286 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

on a business basis and will have a reason for studying 
and fighting them. 

The most common insect pests of the garden are: — 

Cutworms. Plant lice. 

Cucumber striped beetle. Potato beetles. 

Flea beetles. Green cabbage worms. 

Plant diseases are caused by the growth of fungi 
on leaf or stalk. 

Both insect pests and plant diseases are controlled 
by sprays. Sprays are effective only when applied at 
the right time. 

Poisons, such as arsenate of lead, are used to control 
leaf-eating insects, like the canker worm and potato 
beetle. 

Tobacco extracts, soap sprays, kerosene emulsion are 
used to kill sucking insects, like plant lice, etc. 

Bordeaux mixture and lime-sulphur are used to com- 
bat plant diseases. 

A table is here given showing the common plant 
pests and diseases and the way to combat them. 

Spray when the sun is shining and finish in time to 
have it dry before the dew falls. Sucking insects will 
not be killed unless the spray hits them. 

As pupils become interested in insect control they 
will naturally want to see and know what the farmers 
of the community are thinking and doing. Take them 
to a farm where spray is being applied to an apple 
orchard. Get them to inquire about the number of 
sprays that are applied during the season and at what 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 287 




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288 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

times. There will probably be orchards in the neigh- 
borhood that are not sprayed. Have that fact noted. 
Be sure to take them to the same two orchards in 
the fall when the fruit has matured. The difference in 
the quality and quantity of fruit will be a good object 
lesson. 

While the children are interested in their gardens 
and in protecting their plants from insect enemies 
and while the younger members of the school are ac- 
tively at work making observations, collecting and 
talking about various types of insects, a splendid 
opportunity is offered for interesting the whole school 
in some definite piece of work in insect control. Per- 
haps the tent caterpillar has become a real pest. The 
boys and girls may be organized into companies or 
clubs for the purpose of doing extermination work. 
They should study the best methods and learn to 
apply them. While the work is being done they should 
observe the kinds of trees on which the caterpillar is 
found and the nature of the damage which the insect 
does. This study offers a good opportunity for teach- 
ing the functions of the leaves and their relation to the 
life of the tree. 

Happily the farmer is not left to fight his battles 
with plant enemies all alone. Nature has provided 
helpers for him. If the youthful gardeners realized 
how hard the toads work for them they would protect 
them from harm in every way possible. 

Some insects are useful because they live on other. 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 289 

harmful kinds. These are called cannibals. The most 
common of this type is the lady-beetle or lady-bug, 
as it is sometimes called. This little creature eats only 
insects and usually only harmful ones. 

But the birds are perhaps the most useful helpers of 
the farmer. Enemies to plant life and the farmer's 
crops often come in great bands, very unexpectedly. 
The birds are usually there as scouts to destroy them. 
Many millions of dollars worth of crops are destroyed 
every year by insects, but many millions more would 
be destroyed were it not for the birds. 

Birds are like patrols of the air, like scouts on watch 
for the farmers' enemies. The robin searches the 
fields and destroys millions of grasshoppers, earth 
worms and cutworms. The bluebird helps the robin 
and in addition is found at work among the leaves and 
branches of the fruit and shade trees. Other birds 
such as chipping sparrows, after grasshoppers, black- 
birds, bobolinks, and meadow-larks in fields and pas- 
ture lands and the thrushes and chewinks. in the hedge 
rows and among the leaves in under growth on the 
edge of the woods should be studied. 

If the children come to have an intimate knowledge 
of birds they will naturally seek to protect their nests 
and their young. The resourceful teacher will be able 
to extend this study indefinitely. It is excellent nature 
study and bears directly upon agriculture. But the 
teacher must not be disappointed to discover that 
all pupils are not equally interested in it. 



290 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Propagation and dissemination 

During the planting season then is the time to study 
the methods by which plant life is propagated and 
disseminated. Some of the topics that should be con- 
sidered here are the propagation of plant life, (a) by 
seeds, (6) by plants, (c) by roots, {d) by tuber, {e) by 
cuttings, (/) by buds and grafts. 

The children all know about raising plants from 
seeds. They probably do not all know how the white 
clover and the strawberry branches off, takes root, 
forms new plants and is thus able to live for years 
under hard conditions. They should make a study of 
this fact. They may not know that they may multiply 
their grapevines by simply taking a branch of the 
mother plant and covering it over with soil until it 
has rooted and then cutting off the piece thus rooted. 
It may then be transplanted. They should do this at 
home or at the school. They should also be encour- 
aged to find other examples of plants that are propa- 
gated in this way. 

The sweet potato is an example of plants grown 
from roots. The edible portion of the sweet potato is 
simply an enlarged root. In sections where this vege- 
table is grown the children may raise their own plants. 

The white, Irish or field potato is a modified stem. 
Children, particularly those living in farming com- 
munities, are more or less famihar with the method of 
producing the potato plant. But to those living in vil- 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 291 

lages and small towns who have the school garden 
or who are interested in a home garden the study of 
how to grow the potato plant would be of interest. 

The study of the potato with the potato before 
the child, or better still with one in the hands of each 
child, should be made. The eyes should be pointed 
out, counted and their function explained. How and 
why the potato is cut for planting should be made 
plain. Then each child who is going to plant should 
cut his own potato. Doing this, planting it and watch- 
ing for the sprout to come through the surface of the 
ground, will be good nature study and also good agri- 
culture. 

As suggested above, nature study and elementary 
agriculture should lead to better-kept school grounds. 
There should be some rose bushes around the school 
house. Getting them there offers an opportunity to 
teach propagation from cuttings. This may be done 
by using a shallow box or pan, filled with clean sand 
wet thoroughly. The cutting is forced down into the 
sand so that two or more buds are below the surface 
leaving one above. The sand is then firmed about the 
slip. The box should be kept in a light warm place 
until the plant is well started. All the while the sand 
should be kept moist. 

Budding and grafting are simple operations and 
easily learned. They should form a part of the work 
of the older pupils in the school. 

Seed dissemination is a fascinating study. For lack 



£92 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

of space attention only can be called to this subject. 
Pine cones, milkweed pods, thistles, acorns, butter- 
cups; the work of squirrels, birds, bees, and winds all 
provide an abundance of material for profitable nature 
study related to agriculture. 

Harvest time 

As soon as crops begin to mature some attention 
should be given to judging vegetables. Success in any 
line of agriculture will depend upon the standards by 
which the farmer measures the quality of his products 
as well as the processes by which he produced them. 
The boy or girl who raises onions or beans should know 
how they would be graded if put in the market. He 
should learn that certain standards are set whereby 
all farm products may be judged or graded. If he is 
growing tomatoes or corn he should be familiar with 
the standard characteristics of the variety grown and 
be able to tell whether his product possesses those 
qualities or characteristics. The harvesting and mar- 
keting methods that are practiced in the community 
should be studied, together with methods of grading, 
bunching, packing, basketing and selling. If possible 
the children should be taken to the farms in order 
that they may see the operations going on. If they 
live near enough to a market to make it possible, 
they should go there and see the farm products as 
they arrive. They should observe their condition, 
packing, etc. 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 293 

If pupils wish to save seed for next year's planting, 
now is the time to select and prepare it. The plants 
from which seed is to be saved should be healthy and 
vigorous. They should be those which develop an 
early and an abundant crop of the most desirable 
product. Seed should not be saved from the leavings 
in the garden or field. 

If a child has a cucumber, cantaloupe, pumpkin, 
squash, or tomato that is true to type, that grew on 
a strong and vigorous vine, it would be well to encour- 
age him to save the seed. The easiest way is to cut the 
fruit in half and scrape out the seed. Allow the seed 
mass to stand in a wooden vessel in a warm place for 
a day or two. The sticky material will become dried 
out. Stir the mass or rub it with the hands; add 
water and after the seeds have settled to the bottom 
pour it off. This will carry off the refuse material and 
poor seeds, leaving only the good seeds at the bottom. 
Spread them out on newspapers and when they are 
dry store carefully in a dry place but not in air-tight 
containers. 

Some vegetables require two years in which to de- 
velop seed. The plant or roots is grown in the fall, 
stored over the winter and set out the next spring to 
develop the crop of seed. To this class of vegetables 
belong beets, cabbage,' carrots, celery, kohl-rabi, leeks, 
onions, parsnips and turnips. 

Seeds from cucumbers and cantaloupes or from 
squash and pumpkins that are grown near one another 



294 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

are worthless because they mix. It should be remem- 
bered also that seed from any two vegetables belong- 
ing to the same class as turnips and kohl-rabi, or leeks 
and onions, should not be saved if they grow near 
each other and were in blossom at the same time, 
because they are apt to mix. 

The harvest time is the time for exhibits, harvest 
festivals, etc., as well as a time for planning for future 
crops and for marketing the present one. School 
children should be made a part of these community 
gatherings and activities. They may participate in a 
variety of ways. (1) Each child that had a garden 
might bring an exhibit showing something of the 
variety and quality of his products. (2) Contests in 
judging farm products, such as potatoes, corn, beets, 
cabbage, apples, squash, etc., might be held. (3) Dem- 
onstrations in food conservations and canning might 
be given. (4) Records, reports and stories of accom- 
plishment might be read and exhibited. (5) The young 
children should be given an opportunity to take part 
in the exercises of the day in games and by exhibits. 

Records 

The keeping of records does not belong to any par- 
ticular months, but to all months. The plan of the 
garden, the planting chart, the result of seed testing 
that may be done, notes of special incidents relating 
to the work, such as experiences with insect pests, 
plant diseases or seasonal or climatic conditions would 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 295 

form a legitimate part of the records that should be 
kept by a group studying elementary agriculture by 
the project method. Besides these records an account 
of expenditures and receipts should be kept. This will 
emphasize the economic lessons that such a piece of 
work should aim to teach. 

If this phase of the work is systematically carried 
out it offers good opportunity to vitalize the teaching 
of the other subjects in the curriculum. Gathering 
material from nature will quicken the observation; 
getting it from books, bulletins and reports will teach 
the value of learning to read understandingly; noting 
observations will emphasize the importance of writ- 
ing, spelling and English. Studying climatic condi- 
tions and weather variations will lay a foundation 
for the interpretation of geography. Working out 
percentage of germination and determining profits 
and losses will be the application of arithmetic. 

Relation with Other School Subjects 

Reading 

Some of the class reading in the upper grades 
should be from the bulletins and catalogues that are 
being consulted. These and suitable books should be 
read for specific information. This reading should not 
be done with the intention of memorizing or of learn- 
ing definitions. A practical man reads to find the 
answer to questions that arise in his work. Pupils 



296 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

in their reading on agriculture should read in this same 
way. 

Pupils should be encouraged to bring to school and 
read to the class passages from magazine articles, 
newspaper paragraphs and selections from farm 
papers that bear upon topics related to their school 
project work or home interests. 

Composition 

Letters may be written in school for the bulletins 
and catalogues that the class wishes to consult. Letters 
may be written to various people and organizations 
whom it may be desirable to interest in the school 
projects. The replies to these letters will generally be 
good models to study for form and clearness and sen- 
tence and paragraph structure. 

The project itself will suggest many subjects for 
paragraph compositions, e.g.. Testing Seeds; Plant- 
ing Seeds; Judging Corn, Apples, Potatoes, Tomatoes, 
etc.; How I Made My Hot-Bed; How I Felt After 
Spading for an Hour, etc. 

Arithmetic 

A great variety of arithmetic problems lie hidden 
in agricultural projects. A few topics are here sug- 
gested: — 

Measurements: — 

Length and width of the plot cultivated. 
Area in square feet. 
What part of an acre.'* 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 297 

What part of the plot is devoted to each vegetable? 

What is the perimeter of the garden? 

What part is devoted to walks? 
Costs: — 

Complete cost of cultivation — seeds, fertilizers, tools, 
marketing; receipts; profit (or loss). 
Percentage: — 

Compute percentages of the different chemicals given in 
formulas of fertilizers and also percentages of various 
chemicals per ton in different substances. 

All the relations given under measurements and costs 
may be worked out in per cents. Care should be taken 
here, as in other work, however, not to force the corre- 
lation. 
Business forms: — 

Letters. 

Bills. 

Receipts. 

Inventories. 

Discounts. 

Market prices. 

Commission merchants' profits. 

The school agricultural interest should extend into 
tl:e community, as has been suggested before. On 
the home farm will be found an abundance of data 
for the making of "community" problems, e.g.. How 
much corn was sowed per acre? How much was 
harvested per acre? What was the per acre per cent 
of increase? etc. 

Other relations 
Spelling, drawing, geography, history, and manual 
training may each be vitalized by relating it and apply- 
ing it to the school agricultural projects that are en- 



298 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

gaging the pupils' interests. In fact these related stud- 
ies cannot escape being drawn into these projects, if 
the work is carried on in the spirit that is here sug- 
gested. Many teachers are doing these things. All 
may do them. 

The Teacher's Helps 

Agriculture is a science made up of many sciences 
and an art that has never been mastered by the most 
skillful. The teacher, although she be quite competent 
to carry out the program of a modern school, cannot 
be an expert farmer. But she should not hesitate to 
introduce and carry on a course in elementary agri- 
culture for that reason. After all a good school is a 
place where there are numerous opportunities for edu- 
cation, rather than a place where the teacher is the 
most learned person in the community. Does the 
teacher see the usefulness, the educational importance 
of relating the pupils' lives to the productiveness of 
nature? She will then become a student, with her 
pupils, of this most fundamental science and art. 

She may have for the asking almost innumerable 
helps. The neighborhood farmers will help. The 
Grange and other community organizations will help. 
The county and state agricultural organizations and 
agricultural agents will help, and so will the state 
leader of junior projects and the director of boys' 
and girls' club work. 

There are many good textbooks on the subject of 



NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 299 

elementary agriculture that may be had at small cost. 
There is also much information and practical sugges- 
tion in the bulletins and circulars issued by the de- 
partments of agriculture in the state colleges. This 
is all sent free on application. The bulletins of the 
National Department of Agriculture may be had 
free by writing to the representative of your district 
in Congress or to one of your senators. A few of 
these numerous publications are given in the following 
bibliography. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

1. On nature study : — • 

a. School of the Woods. William J. Long. 

b. The Lay of the Land. Dallas Lore Sharp. 

c. Sig?is and Seasons. John Burroughs. 

d. Citizen Birds:. Mabel Osgood Wright. 

e. Grasshopper Green s Garden. Julia A. Schwartz. 
/. The Travels of Birds. Frank M. Chapman. 

g. The Nature-Study Idea. L. H. Bailey. 
h. The Holy Earth. L. H. Bailey. 

2. On agriculture : — 

a. Among School Gardens. M. Louise Greene. 

Chapter II. 
6, Agriculture for Beginners. Burkett, Stevens, and Hill. 

c. Elementary Agriculture. James S. Grim. 

d. The Teaching of Agriculture. A. W. Nolan. 

3. On planning the garden : — 

a. Among School Gardens. M. Louise Greene. 

Chapter V. 

b. Little Gardens for Boys and Girls. Myrta M. Higgins. 

Chapter III. 

c. Garden Steps. Ernest Cobb. 

4. On special crops : — 

a. How to Make the Garden Pay. Morrison and Brues. 

Chapter III. 

6. The Story of Corn. Eugene C. Brooks. 



300 THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

c. Home Projects Series. Nolan and Greene. 

Growing corn. 

Vegetable gardening and canning. 

5. Elementary agricultural arithmetic : — ■ 

a. A Rural Arithmetic. Madden and Turner. 
Chapters I-IV. 

h. Farm Arithmetic. Burkett and Swartzel. 

6. General books : — 

The Story of Foods. Forrest Crissey. 
Vocational Guidance. J. Adams Puffer. 
Education for Efficiency. E, Davenport. 
State Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletins. 
United States Government Agricultural Bulletins. 
Request a catalogue through your Congressman. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bach, Alberto B. Musical Education and Vocal Culture, 

Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. $3.00. 
Bailey, Henry T. Nature Drawing. Atkinson, Mentzer 

& Grover, Chicago. $1.50. 
Bailey, L. H. The Nature Study Idea. The Maemillan 

Company, New York. $1.25. 
Bailey, L. H. The Holy Earth. Charles Scribner's Sons, 

New York. $1.00. 
Bancroft, Jessie H. Posture of the School Child. The 

Maemillan Company, New York. $1.50. 
Bentley, Alys E. The Song Primer, Teacher's Book. A. S. 

Barnes Company, New York. $1.00. 
Brooks, Eugene Clyde. The Story of Corn. Rand, Mc- 

Nally & Company, Chicago. $.75. 
Bryant, Sara Cone. How To Tell Stories To Children, 

Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. $1.10. 
Burkett, Stevens, and Hill. Agriculture for Beginners, 

Gran & Company, Boston. (Rev. ed.) $.80. 
Burkett and Swartzel. Farm Arithmetic. Orange Judd 

Company, Springfield, Massachusetts. $1.00. 
Burroughs, John. Signs and Seasons. Houghton Mifflin 

Company, Boston. $1.35. 
Cabot, Ella L. Ethics for Children. Houghton Mifflin 

Company, Boston. $1.25. 
Chapman, Frank M. The Travels of Birds. D. Appleton & 

Company, New York. $.45. 
Clark, Lydia. Physical Training for the Elementary Schools, 

Benjamin H. Sanborn, Boston. $1.60. 
Cobb, Ernest. Garden Steps. Silver, Burdett & Company, 

Boston. $.60. 
CoE, Fanny E. Makers of the Nation. American Book 

Company, New York. $.56. 
Crissey, Forrest. The Stcyry of Foods, Rand, McNally 

& Company, Chicago. $1.25. 



S02 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Curtis, H. S. Education Through Play. The Macmillan 

Company, New York. $1.25. 
Curtis, H. S. Play and Recreation for the Open Country. 

Ginn & Company, Boston. $1.16. 
Daniels, Fred H. School Drawing, A Real Correlation. 

Milton Bradley Company, Boston. $1.20. 
Dann, Hollis E. Music Course. Books I- VI and Teacher's 

Manual. American Book Company, New York. 
Davenport, E. Education for Efficiency. D. C. Heath & 

Company, Boston. $1.20. 
Davis, Kary C. School and Home Gardening. J. B. Lippin- 

cott Company, Philadelphia. $1.28. 
Dewey, John and Evelyn. Schools of To-morrow. E. P. 

Dutton & Company, New York. $1.50. 
Dopp, Katharine E. The Place of Industries in Elementary 

Education. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. $1. 
Faulkner, A. S. What We Hear in Music. Victor Com- 
pany, Camden, New Jersey. $1.00. 
Fillmore, J. C. Lessons in Musical History. The Presser, 

Philadelphia. $1.50. 
GiDDiNGS, T. p. School Music Teaching. C. H. Congdon, 

Chicago. $1.00. 
GiLMAN and Williams. Seat Work and Industrial Occupa- 
tions. The Macmillan Company, New York. $.56. 
Golden Rule Series of Readers, The. The Macmillan Com- 
pany, New York. 
Greene, M. Louise. Among School Gardens. Charities 

Publishing Company, New York. $1.25. 
Grim, James S. Elementary Agriculture. Allyn & Bacon, 

Boston. $1.25. 
Henderson, W. J. The Orchestra and Orchestra Music. 

Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. $1.35. 
HiGGiNs, Myrta M. Little Gardens for Boys and Girls. 

Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. $1.10. 
Howard, F. E. The Child Voice in Singing. H. W. Gray 

Company, New York. $.75. 
Keyes, Angelina. Stories and Story-Telling. D. Appleton 

& Company, New York. $1.30. 
Kofler, Leo. The Art of Breathing. Edgar S. Werner & 

Company, New York. $1.50. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 303 

Lawrence and Sheldon. Decorative Design (in the grades). 
Scott, Foresman & Company, Chicago. (Teacher's ed.) 
$L25. 

Lewis, Prudence. Golden Hours. The Bobbs-Merrill Com- 
pany, Indianapolis. $1.00. 

Long, William J. School of the Woods. Ginn & Company, 
Boston. $1.50. 

Madden and Turner. A Rural Arithmetic. Houghton 
Mifflin Company, Boston. $.65. 

Matthews, W. S. B. How to Understand Music. (2 vols.) 
The Presser, Philadelphia. $1.50. 

McCoNATHY, Osbourne. School Song Book. C. C. Birch- 
ard & Company, Boston. $.50. 

Morrison and Brues. How to Make the Garden Pay. 
Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. $.60. 

Music Primer. C. H. Congdon, Chicago. 

New Educational Music Course. (Teacher's ed.) Ginn & 
Company, Boston. $1.25. 

Newell, C. Edward. Construction Work for Schools Without 
Special Equipment. Milton Bradley Company, Boston. 
$1.20. 

Nolan, A. W. The Teaching of Agriculture. Houghton 
Mifflin Company, Boston. $1.30. 

Nolan and Greene. Home Project Series: Corn-Growing, 
$.32; Vegetable Gardening and Canning, $.32. Row, Peter- 
son & Company, Chicago. 

Official Handbook of the Girls' Branch of the Public School 
Athletic League (annual). American Sports Publishing 
Company, New York. $.10. 

One Hundred One Best Songs. Cable Piano Company, Chi- 
cago. 

O'Neill, Anna T. L. Recitations for Assembly and Class- 
room, with Suggested Programs. The Macmillan Com- 
pany, New York. $1.00. 

Parton, James. Captains of Industry. Houghton Mifflin 
Company, Boston. $1.25. 

Persons, Eleanor A. Our Country in Poem and Prose. 
American Book Company, New York. $.50. 

Progressive Music Series. Books I-IV and Teacher's Manu- 
als. Silver, Burdett & Company, Boston. 



S04 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Puffer, J. Adams. Vocational Guidance. Rand, McNally 

& Company, Chicago. $1.25. 
Reilly, Frederick J. Rational Athletics for Boys and Girls. 

D. C. Heath & Company, Boston. $.64. 
Riley and Gaynor. Songs of the Child World. (3 vols.) 

John Church Company, Cincinnati. (Each) $1.00. 
Ripley and Tappan. Harmonic Music Course. Primary 

Books I-V and Charts. American Book Company, New 

York. 
Riverside Literature Series: Selections for Study and Memor- 
izing. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. (Paper.) $.16. 
Sargent and Miller. How Children Learn to Draw. Ginn 

& Company, Boston. $1.00. 
ScHAUFFLER, RoBERT Haven. Thanksgiving^ Arbor Day^ 

Christmas, Lincoln's BirtMay, Memorial Day, Washing- 
ton's Birthday, Flag Day, Independence Day, Easter. 

Moffat, Yard & Company, New York. (Each) $1.00. 
Schwartz, Julia Augusta. Grasshopper Green's Garden. 

Little, Brown & Company, Boston. $.50. 
ScoLLARD, Clinton. Ballads of American Bravery. Silver, 

Burdett & Company, Boston. $.35. 
Sharp, Dallas Lore. The Lay of the Land. Houghton 

Mifflin Company, Boston. $1.35. 
Sharp, Dallas Lore. Nature Series — Fall, Winter, Spring, 

Summer. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. (Each) 

$.60. 
Shepard, F. H. Harmony Simplified. G. Shirmer, New 

York. $1.25. 
SiNDELAR, Joseph. Morning Exercises for All the Year. 

Beckley-Cardy Company. $.60. 
Smith, Eleanor. Music Primer and Books I-IV. American 

Book Company, New York. $.25. 
Spalding's Athletic Library. American Sports Publishing 

Company, New York. (Each) $.10. 
Stecher, W. a. Guide to Track and Field Contests. J. J. 

McVey, Philadelphia. $.50. 
Stevens and Stevens. American Patriotic Prose and Verse. 

A. C. McClurg, Chicago. $1.25. 
Stevens, Thomas W. Lettering. Inland Printing Com- 
pany, Chicago. $1.00. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 305 

Sullivan, James E. Schoolyard Athletics. American Sports 

Publishing Company, New York. $.10. 
Tapper, Thomas. First Studies in Mitsic Biography. The 

Presser, Philadelphia. $1.50. 
To Mother. An anthology of mother verse. Houghton 

Mifflin Company, Boston. $1.00. 
United States Government Agricultural Bulletins. Free by 

applying through your Congressman. 
Whitney, Frederick. Blackboard Drawing. Atkinson, 

Mentzer & Grover, New York. $.25. 
Wright, Mabel Osgood. Citizen Birds, The Macmillan 

Company, New York. $1.50. 



INDEX 



Closing School, 16-18: Exer- 
cises appropriate for, 16; pur- 
pose of exercises, 16; quality 
of exercises, 18; things to 
avoid, 17, 18. 

Drawing and Applied Art, 
163-25^ : Art and nature, 177- 
179, 193, 217, 218; drawing 
must be taught, 195, 196; 
drawing schedule for the year, 
203; supervisor and teacher, 
251-254 ; animal dravying, 195- 
203; animals to draw, 196; 
application to design, 203; 
chickens, 196, 199; each ani- 
mal must be taught, 195, 196; 
fishes, 201-202; rabbits, 199- 
201; color, 218-223; agreement 
of, 219; areas of, 219; crayon 
box, 187; coloring a design, 
221-223; coloring a drawing, 
182; coloring a landscape, 194; 
coloring letters, 228; color in 
object drawing, 204, 212; dom- 
inating color, 218; harmony of, 
218-220; judging color values, 
222; nature's use of, 219; neu- 
trals, 219; symbolic colors, 220; 
correlations, 24-6-2 J/S ; arith- 
metic, 247; geography, 247 ; 
holidays, 247; language, 246; 
literature, 246; music, 247; 
seasons, 247; design, 228-2^6; 
arithmetic notebook covers, 
234, 236; Christmas cards, 240, 
241; clipping booklet covers, 
232, 233; color book covers. 



230-232; Easter cards, 237, 
239; geography notes covers, 

233, 235; music book covers, 
235, 236; picturp book covers, 

234, 236; sofa cushion designs, 
240-246; spelling book covers, 
234, 236; valentines, 238; illus- 
trative drawing, 187-195; col- 
oring a landscape, 194; figure 
drawing, 190, 193; methods 
of teaching, 194; midwinter 
scenes, 187-195; perspective, 
193; picture words, 193; letter- 
ing, 223-228; beginner's faults, 
223, 225; coloring letters, 228; 
correcting faults, 226-228; 
planning letters, 226; princi- 
ples of, 226, 227; transferring 
letters, 228; nature dravdng, 
16^-187 ; aims in, 164; arrange- 
ment, 177; art is suggestive, 
185; center of interest, 178; 
circle, 166-168; coloring, 182; 
Curve Beautiful, 165-170; 
"Curve of Force," 170; dan- 
delions, 183-187; drawing for 
the class, 180; drawing from 
nature, 170-187; ellipses, 166- 
168; "Infinite Curve," 169; 
lawful curves, 166; leaves, 180- 
182; making a picture, 175- 
179; relative values, 178-180; 
seeing relations, 179; selection 
of sprays to draw, 172; object 
drawing, 203-218; grades I-IV, 
203-205; methods of teachmg, 
205; objects to draw, 204; use 



308 



INDEX 



of crayons, 204; Grade V, 205- 
212; pencil and position, 211, 
212; perspective principle, 205- 
212; problems in perspective, 
207-212; Grade VI, 212-218; 
applying a principle, 215, 216; 
balance, 218; methods of teach- 
ing, 215-218; perspective prin- 
ciple, 212-215; picture study, 
2i8-251 ; appreciation, 248; de- 
light in pictures, 250; idealiza- 
tion in pictures, 249, 250; 
interpretation of pictin-es, 249; 
making picture booklets, 250, 
251; suggestions in pictures, 
249. 

Morning Exercises, 1-16 : Bible 
in, 15; biography in, 11; cur- 
rent events, 10; devotional ex- 
ercises, 14; ethical lessons, 7; 
handv/ork, 13; hygiene lessons, 
6; Lord's Prayer, 15; memo- 
rized quotations, 4; music, 4; 
other school activities related 
to, 4, 5; picture in, 12, 13; 
sources of material for, 15, 34; 
variety of opportunities in, 1, 2. 

Music, 36-39 : Appreciation of, 
36, 37, 81, 82; teaching appre- 
ciation, 90, 91; bands, 88, 92; 
biographies of musicians, 91; 
combination grades in, 82, 83; 
community singing, 87, 88, 94- 
98; course in, 63-83; for Grade 
I, 63-69; for Grade II, 69-73; 
for Grade III, 73-75; for 
Grade IV, 75-77; for Grade V, 
77, 78; for Grade VI, 79, 80; 
for Grades VII and VIII, 80- 
82; for rural schools, 90; good 
music in school, 36; harmony, 
81, 82; instrumental, 37, 88, 92; 
meter, 65, 70, 71, 73; mono- 



tones, 40-42; orchestras, 88, 92; 
phonograph, 92, 96; player 
piano, 92; rhythm, 65, 70-76, 
86; rural schools, 84-90; sing- 
ing, 36-8^; three phases in 
teaching, 36; seating classes 
for, 43; four-part, 81; phrasing, 
47, 48; reading music, 58-62, 
86, 87; rote in Grade I, 48-56; 
rote in Grade II, 57; rote in 
Grades III-VIII, 58; rote to 
note, 60-62; sight reading, 82, 
83, 93; staff, 64, 65; syllables, 
60-64, 65; quality of, 42, 43; 
tone, 39, 40, 80; voice, 37-^8; 
boys', 40, 44-47; changed, 
80; children's changing, 44- 
47; discovering and arranging, 
63; girls', 80; importance of, 
37; proper production, 38, 39. 
Nature Study and Agricul- 
ture, 255-300: Books and 
nature, 257, 260, 262, 297-299; 
they are related, 255, 256; 
from nature study to agricul- 
ture, 266, 267; agriculture in 
Grades VII and VIII, 267-298 ; 
acid soils, 282; arithmetic and 
agriculture, 296, 297; birds in 
the garden, 289; chart of pests, 
diseases, and sprays, 287; cold 
frames, 279, 280; composition 
and agriculture, 296; crop 
standards, 292; cultivation, 
282-284; dissemination of 
seeds, 290-292; enemies of 
plants, 285, 286; exhibits, 294; 
garden project, 267-298; gar- 
den site, 272, 273; harvest 
time, 292; hot-beds, 278, 279; 
identification of seeds and vege- 
tables, 277, 278; insect control, 
286-289; marketing produce, 



INDEX 



309 



292; mellowing the soU, 280; 
motives in gardening, 268, 269; 
perspective view of year's 
work, 269-271; planning the 
garden, 273-275; plant food, 
281; poisons, 286; propagation, 
290-292; school garden, 271, 
272; seed-bed, 280-282; seed 
chart, 283; seed testing, 275- 
277; selecting seed, 293, 294; 
sprays, 286; steps in a garden 
project, 267, 268; teachers' 
helps, 298, 299; testing beans, 
276; testing corn, 276; thm- 
ning, 285; tools, 274, 275; read- 
ing and agriculture, 295, 296; 
records, 294, 295; relations 
with other subjects, 295-298; 
nature study in Grades I-III, 
'256-266; birds, 261-263; chil- 
dren's interests, 256; flowers, 
259-268; games, 259; identify- 
ing trees, 257; insects, 265; 
maple tree, 256, 257; nuts, 263- 
264; school garden, 264; seeds, 
263-264; trees, 256-259; na- 
ture study to agriculture in 
Grades IV-VI, 266, 267; chil- 
dren's responsibility, 266; point 
of view, 266; project method, 
266, 267; selection of material, 
266. 
Physical Education, 100-127: 
Equipment for, 124, 125; ath- 
letic records (scoring chart), 
119, 120; formal gymnastics, 
103, 105-112; games and exer- 
cises for Grades I and II, 106, 
107; for Grade III, 107, 108; 
for Grade IV, 108-109; for 
Grade V, 109; for Grade VI, 
110; for Grade VII, 110, 111; 
for Grade VIII, 111, 112; Ger- 



man system of, 103; helps for 
teachers, 122, 123; indoor exer- 
cise, 105; lengthened school day 
for, 104; maintaining interest 
in, 125, 126; modern need of, 
100-102; modern problem, 102, 
103; nature of children, 102, 
114, 115; need of organization 
for, 115-130; outdoor exercise, 
105; posture (sitting), 106; 
posture (standing), 106; pur- 
pose of gynmastics, 103, 105; 
principles governing, 112; re- 
cesses used for, 113, 114; rural 
schools and, 123-127; school 
organization illustrated, opp. 
119; scoring team and indi- 
vidual events, 118-121; Swed- 
ish system, 103; tune for, 104. 
Seat Work, 128-162 : Coopera- 
tion of pupils in, 128, 129; 
manual work in Grades I and II, 
143, 153-157 ; construction for 
play store, 156, 157; making 
toy furniture, 154, 155; mak- 
ing toy menagerie, 157; mak- 
ing posters, 158; use of pic- 
tures, 157-159; manual work 
in Grades III and IV, 159-162; 
decorating a schoolroom, 159, 
160; making transparencies, 
160, 161; making a scrapbook, 
161; working to measure, 162; 
number work m Grades I and 
II, 143-151; analyzing num- 
bers, 149; counting coins, 144; 
domino cards, 145; finding dif- 
ferences, 148: finding products, 
147, 148; finding sums, 147, 
148; finding quotients, 148, 
149; grouping units, 146, 147; 
making toy money, 143, 144; 
matching number cards, 145; 



310 



INDEX 



measuring, 151; review exer- 
cises, 149, 150; number work in 
Grades III and IV, 151-153; 
carrying out a project, 153; 
fundamental number facts, 
151; fundamental processes, 
152; making problems, 153; 
solving problems, 152; pictures 
in seat work, 140, 157-159; 
purpose of seat work, 128; 
reading {silent) in Grades I and 
II, 131-134; study period, 
131 ; supplementary reading, 
133, 134; reading {silent) in 
Grades III and IV, 13It-136 ; 
finding answers to reading 
problems, 134; finding some- 
thing to tell, 134; guessing 
riddles, 135; making questions, 
135; results of seat work meas- 
ured, 130, 131; supervision of, 
130; word and sentence drills 
in Grades I and II, 136-Ul ; 
arranging words by sounds, 
139; describing pictures, 140; 
compositions, 139; filling 



blanks, 140; matching script 
and print, 136; matching script 
and script, 137; memory sen- 
tences, 138; Mother Goose 
rhymes, 139; naming colors, 
138; original sentences, 138; 
word and sentence drills in 
Grades III and IV, lU-143 ; 
describing pictures, 142; fill- 
ing blanks, 141; hygiene puz- 
zles, 142; preparing for dicta- 
tion, 141; selecting words, 143; 
sentence puzzles, 141, 142; 
work adapted to seat occupa- 
tion, 128. 
Special-Day Programs, 19-3 1^ : 
All children should take part, 
22, 23; community days, 26, 
27; community interests, 25- 
29; Christmas program, 20, 21 
memorized quotations in, 28 
Mother's Day program, 31 
patriotic program, 23-25 ; prep- 
aration of, 33, 34; quality 
of, 18-21; rural schools, 32; 
Thanksgiving day, 32, 33. 



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